1. Escrever um artigo ou relatório Licenciatura em Física Licenciatura em Engenharia Física Licenciatura em Bioquímica Licenciatura em Biologia Ano lectivo 2008/2009 Professor Vitali Tchepel Departamento de Física, Universidade de Coimbra

2. Writing steps Prepare an outline. Outline what you want to do on a piece of paper. There should be at least: Research bibliography Write a rough draft Re-write it (again and again) Give someone to read and prepare yourself for the worse 1.An introduction. 2.Middle sections with headings, detailing your research, ideas and discussion. 3.A summary and/or conclusion. A summary is a retelling of what you have reported on; a conclusion draws together your arguments about the topic to reach your final point of view.

3. When do I start ? When you work – think of it When you sleep - dream of it Just imaging how would you put it all in a paper or a report often helps to organize the research, to measure something that you would not measure otherwise, for example.

4. Structure Title List of authors and their affiliations Abstract (indispensable in a paper; good to have in a report) Introduction (includes literature review) Method (Experimental setup - if experimental work ) (Data analysis – may be needed ) Results Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References

5. Technical report vs scientific paper More technical details are allowed (and even welcome) May contain multiple keypoints Can discuss doubtful issues more freely; more suitable for speculative and provocative suggestions (in a reasonable amount)* Can present solution for a problem but also can only put a problem and/or (possibly) indicate ways of solving it Short but readable Avoid presenting many keypoints – consider writing several papers instead Prove your statements; avoid speculative suggestions Should lead to a clear conclusion (like  problem is solved) workreport paper *) Careful - speaking about scientific and technical reports, not decision support reports !

6. Title It is important that the title be both brief and descriptive of your research. Search engines will use the title to help locate your article. Readers make quick decisions as to whether they are going to invest the time to read your article largely based on the title. Should not contain jargon or vernacular. Should be short (generally 15 words or less) and clearly indicate what the study is about. If in doubt, try to specify the cause and effect relationship in your key point.

7. Abstract Serves two major purposes: it helps a person decide whether to read the paper, and it provides the reader with a framework for understanding the paper if they decide to read it. Thus, your abstract should describe the most important aspects of the study within the word-limit provided by the journal. Try to include a statement of the problem, the method, major findings, and conclusions. If pressed for space, concentrate on the problem and, especially, your findings. Try to show the novelty.

8. Introduction Present the investigated problem, the importance of the study, and an overview of your research strategy. Start from a wide panorama and then narrow it to your specific topic. Review the literature. Show how your research builds on prior knowledge by presenting and evaluating what is already known about your research problem and what is still to do (this is where you are going to attack). Assume that the readers possess a broad knowledge of the field, but not the cited articles, books and papers. Discuss the findings of works that are pertinent to your specific issue. You usually will not need to elaborate on methods (unless your work is about method itself).

9. Introduction You do not need to provide an exhaustive historical review. Analyze the relationships among the related studies instead of presenting a series of seemingly unrelated abstracts or annotations. The introduction should motivate the study. The reader should understand why the problem was researched and why the study represents a contribution to existing knowledge. Good to end up with a paragraph like “In the present work we report on …. We show that …. The obtained results support the idea that … (or suggest that…)… From this we can conclude that …”

10. Method Includes descriptions of the sample, the materials, and the procedures. These may be subtitled and augmented by further sections, if needed. Present here the necessary notations, definitions, equations you will use, references for those etc. You should convince the reader of validity and reliability of your method (repeatability of the measurements, associated uncertainties etc.) If the work is of theoretical nature, state clearly the assumptions, define validity domain etc. You may merge this section with “Experimental setup” if convenient (and if the work is of experimental nature, of course). Provide the reader with enough details so that he could reproduce your work, if he wants to.

11. Experimental setup Describe the setup you were using. Pay attention to describe sufficiently those parts that are essential for the measurements but do not bother with unnecessary details. Use drawings, schematics, diagrams as simple as possible but sufficient for understanding how it all works. Do not forget to mention the relevant dimensions, characteristics of the components, etc. Type and model reference of commercial equipment you used can be important, too. Provide the reader with enough details so that he could reproduce your work, if he wants to.

12. Results Present a summary of what you found. Go straight to the main point (don’t try reader’s patience – usually he does not have it). While tables and graphs should be self-explanatory, do not include a table or graph unless it is discussed in the report. Limit them to those that help the reader understand your data as they relate to the investigated problem. Presenting experimental data, do not forget uncertainties. Sometimes merging with the “Discussion” section can be useful  “Results and discussion”.

13. Discussion At this point, you are the expert on your data set and an authority on the problem you addressed. In this section, discuss and interpret your data for the reader, tell the reader of the implications of your findings. Do not be afraid to state your opinions as far as you can defend them based on facts and proves. Relate your findings to those of previous studies, by explaining relationships and supporting or disagreeing with what others have found. Describe your logic and draw your conclusions. Be careful, however, not to over generalize your results. Your conclusions should be warranted by your study and your data. Be sure to recognize the limitations of your study. Try to anticipate the questions a reader will have and suggest what problems should be researched next in order to extend your findings into new areas.

14. Conclusions Summarize here your results, their interpretation, and the implications of your work. You can also mention shortly the method you used, to remind. Do not be afraid of repetition. Remember, that often this section is read before the paper itself. Do not be arrogant, avoid sentences like “We have shown, for the first time…”