2. A process based on experience that results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential. Examples: Riding a bike; Using chopsticks; reading; sleeping in a bed

3.  Ivan Pavlov  Russia  What is learning?  Classical Conditioning: A learning process in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus.  Pavlov’s dog...

4.  Pavlov began his experiments by ringing a tuning fork and then immediately placing some meat powder on the dogs tongue. He chose the tuning fork because it was a neutral stimulus.  Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of the unconditioned response.

5.  After a few times the dog begins to salivate by merely hearing the sound, even if there was no food within it’s sight.  Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus (here, the tuning fork) can cause a formerly unrelated response.  This occurs if it is presented regularly just before the stimulus (here, the food) that normally brings about a response (here, salivation.)

7.  According to Pavlov, every human or animal has a set of unconditional or involuntary responses.  Such responses include blushing, shivering, being startled, and salivating.  In this experiment, food was the unconditional stimulus.  Unconditional Stimulus (UCS): An event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training.

8.  A few other important things:  Unconditioned Response (UCR): An organism’s automatic (or neutral) reaction to a stimulus. (Example = salivation).  Under normal conditions, the sound of a tuning fork would not cause salivation. The dog had to be taught, or conditioned to associate this sound with food.  An ordinarily neutral event that, after training, leads to a response such as salivation is termed a conditioned stimulus.

9.  Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.  The salivation that is caused by the tuning fork is called a conditioned response.  Conditioned Response (CR): The learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.

12.  A classically conditioned response, like any other behavior, is subject to change.  Pavlov discovered that if he stopped presenting food after the sound of the tuning fork, the sound gradually lost its effect on the dog.  After he repeatedly struck the tuning fork without giving food, the dog no longer associated the sound with the arrival of food – the sound of the tuning fork no longer caused the salivation response.

13.  Pavlov called this effect extinction!  Extinction: The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.  Yet, even though the conditioned response has been extinguished, it does not mean that the CR has been completely unlearned.  Spontaneous Recovery!  You eventually see the object again and get a response…

14.  Generalization- occurs when an organism produces the same response to two similar stimuli. (Similar tuning fork)  Discrimination- occurs when an organism produces different responses to two stimuli.

15.  1 st Step

16.  Volunteers?

17.  Shaping activity.  What is Shaping?  Shaping- reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the one that you want to occur.

18.  What is Operant Conditioning?  Ok, so, suppose you have a dog.  Your dog is wandering around the neighborhood, sniffing trees, checking garbage cans, and looking for a squirrel to chase.  A kind neighbor sees the dog and tosses a bone out of the kitchen door to it.  The next day the dog is likely to stop at the same door on it’s rounds. Once again your neighbor produces another bone, so the dog becomes a regular visitor!  Why?

19.  The reason why is called, operant conditioning.  Operant Conditioning: Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases and decreases in occurrence.  Operant = operates due to a change.

20.  Edward Thorndike = Law of Effect – learning from the consequences of our behavior – reward for good punish for bad  B.F. Skinner = also believed in LoE-new ideas to OC – Reinforcement; behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to vanish (i.e. weakened)

22.  Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the shower becomes very hot and causes the person to jump back. Over time, the person begins to jump back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes.

23.  Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in college because you did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get better in your second year.

24.  Your car has a red, flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without buckling the seat belt. You become less likely to start the car without buckling the seat belt.

25.  You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.

26.  Positive Reinforcement  Negative Reinforcement  Positive Punishment  Negative Punishment  Try to frame your thinking like this:  Reinforcement =Desirable  Punishment =NOT desirable  Positive= to add  Negative= to take away

27.  Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state  Positive reinforcement is giving something pleasant after a behavior. This increases the probability that the behavior will continue.

28.  Increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs.  Negative reinforcement is taking away something unpleasant as a result of the behavior that is acceptable. This is also meant to increase the behavior.

29.  In the case of positive punishment, it involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following an undesirable behavior.  Positive punishment is used to decrease a behavior and is presenting something unpleasant after the behavior.

30.  Involves taking something good or desirable away in order to reduce the occurrence of a particular behavior.  Negative punishment is also used to decrease a behavior and is removing something pleasant after the behavior.

31.  Get into preselected groups  Follow the instructions on the sheet  Be prepared to share at least one with the class.

33.  Continuous reinforcement- Vending machine approach  Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained.  Variable-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in which an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained.  Fixed-Interval Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement.  Variable-Interval Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in which changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement.  Immediate vs. delayed reinforcement-

34.  Primary- something that is naturally rewarding (food)  Secondary- Something you have learned is rewarding because it has been paired with a primary. (Money)

35.  Cognitive Learning focuses on how information is obtained, processed, and organized. Such learning is concerned with the mental process involved in learning. Latent Learning and Learned Helplessness are examples of cognitive learning.  Cognitive Learning: Form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation.

36.  Examples:  1. Latent Learning. Latent learning is not demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior at the time of the learning. Although the learning typically occurs in the absence of a reinforcer, it may not be demonstrated until the reinforcer appears.  Example: Have you ever had to locate a building or a street in a section of Durham that you are unfamiliar with? You may have been through that section of town before and remember details such as an unusual sign or building. Remembering these details may have helped you find the building or street you were looking for. In other words, you learned some details you were not intending to.

37.  Examples:  2. Learned Helplessness. Learned helplessness is a condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable.  Example: You do poorly on a math test the first time you try and decide it was because you had not studied enough. The next test, you do poorly again and decide it was because you did not feel well. On the third test, you once again score poorly…You give up and decide that you “are just dumb,” giving up on math.

38.  Modeling!  Modeling: Learning by imitating others; copying behavior!  This is how the majority of people learn how to act in new situations (sports, concerts, etc.)

39.  Definition = The process of learning new responses by watching the behavior of another  The process of acquiring information by observing others  Example: Learning to tie your shoe by observing someone else perform the task

40.  Albert Bandura = 1. People can learn through observation 2. Mental states are important to learning (awareness) 3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior

41.  Bobo Doll experiment Bobo Doll experiment

42.  Albert Bandura = The Modeling Process 1.) Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. 2.) Retention: ability to store the information 3.) Reproduction: actually performing the behavior you observed 4.) Motivation: for learning to be successful, one has to be motivated to act upon the behavior. Reinforcement and punishment can help focus learners