1. CHAPTER 15 ___________________________ ARCHITECTURE

2. Philip Johnson and John Brugee, College of Architecture, University of Houston, 1983-85. This building is considered postmodern, because it celebrates many different architectural styles. A structure resembling a Greek temple rests on top. The main building resembles an Italian villa from the Renaissance.

3. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, House of Education, 1773-79. This drawing represents a plan for a House of Education building in France, which was never built. This drawing provided the inspiration for the College of Architecture at the University of Houston.

4. The atrium that sits underneath the colonnade on the roof provides a cool space to escape the hot Texas sun. It exemplifies how architecture is largely a product of its environment. Buildings and spaces are designed to work with the surrounding climate and terrain.

5. Topography and Technology topography and technology. Each example of architecture depends on two different factors and their interrelation: topography and technology. Topography Topography is the distinct landscape characteristics of the local site. For example, a building designed to work well in the winters of Alaska must take a very different topography into account than a building designed for the South American Amazon. Technology Technology refers to the materials and methods available to a given culture. We have an expansive list of choices for technology today, but this was not always the case. Different types of structures become possible with different technologies.

6. Thomas Coram, View of Mulberry House and Street, c. 1800. Oil on paper. This painting represents slave housing in South Carolina in the 18 th century. These houses are very similar to ones found from the same time period in West Africa. The similar climate of the two areas required a similar structure. The tall roofs trap hot air, so the living space is filled with cooler air.

7. Walls that will hold up a roof… shellsystemskeleton-and-skin system The basic technological challenge faced by architecture is to build upright walls and put a roof over the empty space they enclose. Walls may use one of two basic structural systems: the shell system or the skeleton-and-skin system. shell system The shell system is when one basic building material provides both the structural support and the outside covering of the building. skeleton-and-skin system The skeleton-and-skin system consists of basic interior frame (the skeleton) that supports the more fragile outer covering (the skin).

8. Examples of load-bearing construction. The material that we see on the outside of the buildings is directly responsible for holding the buildings together, and supporting them. Top left: Pyramids at Menkaure (c. 2470 BCE), Khafre (c. 2500 BCE), and Khufu (c. 2530 BCE). Top right: The Lion Gate, Mycenae, Greece, 1250 BCE. Bottom: Corner of the First Temple of Hera, Paestum, Italy, c. 550 BCE.

9. Examples of skeleton-and-skin construction. It would be impossible for glass walls to hold up such large buildings. The fragile glass exterior is the skin that surrounds the skeleton of (in this case) reinforced concrete and steel.

10. Tensile strength and technology… tensile strength The span between the elements of the supporting structure (walls or columns, for example) is determined by the tensile strength of the roof material. Tensile strength Tensile strength is the ability of a building material to span horizontal distances without support and without buckling in the middle. The greater the tensile strength of the material, the wider its potential span. Almost all technological advances in the history of architecture depend on either the invention of new ways to distribute weight or the discovery of new materials with greater tensile strength.

11. - The tensile strength of the stone used in the ancient Greek temple is fairly weak. Note how short the span of the lintel is in between each column. - The Roman Pantheon, with it’s large concrete dome (top left) distributes the weight differently, allowing for a far greater span on the ceiling, and more un- interrupted space on the interior. - The Houston Astrodome uses more newly discovered materials along with superior weight distribution to achieve an amazing span across the interior of the space.

12. We will examine the following technologies… Load-bearing construction Post-and-lintel construction Arches, vaults, and domes Cast iron construction Frame construction Steel and reinforced concrete construction

13. Load-bearing construction… Load-bearing: In architecture, this is a construction method where the walls bear the weight of the roof. This is achieved by piling or stacking any material (for example: stones, bricks, mud, and straw) right up to the roof level. Taller buildings that use this method (such as the ancient Egyptian pyramids) would require incredibly thick walls at the bottom of the structure, in order to support the weight of the building.

14. Pyramids at Menkaure (c. 2470 BCE), Khafre (c. 2500 BCE), and Khufu (c. 2530 BCE). The architecture of early civilizations was mainly designed to imitate natural forms. The true meaning of the pyramids in Egypt is unknown, but many scholars believe they imitate the sun’s rays coming down to Earth, and would serve as a connection to the Egyptian Sun God Re.

15. The stone blocks used to build the Great Pyramid weigh around 2.5 to 15 tons each. The pyramid is made of an estimated 2.3 million blocks. (In order for this building to have been completed when it was, workers would have had to set a block in place every 2.5 minutes!) This piece of architecture is using an enormous amount of weight to build itself up.

16. This image shows a diagram with a cross-sectional view of the Great Pyramid’s walls. Note how thick the walls are, in order to hold up such a great weight of stone, and not cave in, in load bearing construction.

17. Ziggurat, Ur, c. 2100 BCE. The shapes of these buildings in ancient Mesopotamia are wider and flatter than the Egyptian pyramids, suggesting the foothills that lead up to mountains. Mountains held special significance, as the Sumerians believed that mountaintops were the source of water, as well as the dwelling place of the gods.

18. Post-and-Lintel Construction… Post-and-lintel construction posts lintel Post-and-lintel construction: In architecture, this is a system of building in which two posts support a crosspiece, or a lintel, that spans the distance between them. Post-and-lintel construction is fundamental to all Greek architecture. colonnades The posts are known as columns, and the rows of columns set at regular intervals around their buildings are known as colonnades.

19. The Lion Gate, Mycenae, Greece, 1250 BCE. The walls are built with load-bearing technology, but the gateway is made with post-and-lintel construction.

20. Corner of the First Temple of Hera, Paestum, Italy, c. 550 BCE. The temple was built with post-and- lintel construction. A row of columns is called a colonnade. Notice how the columns are not solid pieces of stone. They are made of several chunks, called drums. The grooves that are carved into the stone are called fluting. The slight swelling of the columns is referred to as entasis.

21. Parthenon (temple to the goddess Athena), Athens, Greece. 438 BCE. Notice the colonnades holding up the lintels to form the “roof.”

22. Arches, Vaults, and Domes… Round arches, barrel vaults, and domes: innovations by the ancient Romans… arch. Ancient Romans used colonnades in much of their architecture, which they learned from the ancient Greeks, but they perfected the use of the arch. Round arch: Round arch: A round arch is a curved, often semicircular architectural form that spans an opening or space built of wedge-shaped blocks, with a keystone centered at the top. A row of continuous arches is called an arcade. Barrel vault Barrel vault: A barrel vault is a masonry (stone) roof constructed on the principle of the arch. It is essentially a long series of arches stacked against one another, like a tunnel. Dome Dome: This is a roof that is generally in the shape of a hemisphere, or half- globe. The Romans perfected the use of the dome.

23. Pont du Gard, near Nîmes, France. Late first century BCE – early first century CE. Height 180 ft. Romans revolutionized built environments with their perfection of the round arch. Several arches lined up against one another, as seen here, is called an arcade.

24. The Colosseum, Rome, 72-80 CE. We can see rows of arcades from the outside, but barrel vaults help expand the space inside. This is an example of an amphitheatre, or double theatre, which refers to two half-round theatres that have been combined into one large one. The Romans invented this type of building.

25. Pantheon, Rome, 117-125 CE. Interior view, left. Exterior view, right. The Romans were the first to perfect the dome. Note how the front of the building uses post-and-lintel as its entrance. The original street entrance to the building made it impossible to see the sides and top of the building. Foreign dignitaries would think they were entering a traditional Roman forum building, which consisted largely of post and lintel. Upon entering the Pantheon, the unexpected and gigantic dome was both impressive and disorienting.

26. Pointed arches in Gothic architecture… The architectural innovations of the Romans were used for large public buildings for centuries. In Europe, about 1150 CE, the Gothic architectural style began to develop. pointed arches The use of pointed arches appeared, rather than rounded ones. The pointed arch is not semicircular, but rather it rises more steeply to a point at its top. The height of a rounded arch is determined by its width, but the height of a pointed arch can readily be extended by straightening the curves upwards into a point, with the weight of the ceiling descending much more directly down the wall. Pointed arches produced an effect of amazing height and space inside Gothic churches.

27. Amiens Cathedral, France, begun 1220. Look at the incredible sense of height achieved by using the pointed arch. Pointed arches were primarily used in Gothic architecture, both in arcades, and in long complicated barrel vaults, as seen here. This type of vaulting in Gothic architecture is referred to as rib vaults.

28. The need for flying buttresses… All arches tend to spread outward, creating the risk of collapse. Early on, Romans learned to support the sides of the arch to counteract this lateral thrust. In the great French cathedrals, the support was provided by building a series of arches on the outside of the building, whose thrusts would balance out and counteract the outward force of the large interior arches.

29. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, 1211- 1290. Look how the flying buttresses support the outside Cathedral walls, but at the same time they appear light and delicate. They do not let the viewer focus on how heavy the stone is, because they do not appear bulky. Flying buttresses also allow for more windows to be used, because there is more open space on the outside walls. This results in stone churches, with stone roofs that have an incredible sense of light inside.

31. Sainte-Chappelle, France, 1239. The use of light through the enormous windows, and color, through the stained glass, help to transform the interior of this building into a transcendental experience.

32. Cast Iron Construction… Until the 19 th century (1800s), the history of architecture was determined by innovations in the ways to use the same materials (mostly stone). In the 19 th century, iron, a material that had been known for 1000s of years, but had never been used in architecture, absolutely transformed the way building was done. cast iron. Engineers discovered that by adding carbon to iron, they could create a much more rigid and strong material: cast iron.

33. Gustave Eiffel, Eiffel Tower, 1 887-89. Height of the tower is 1,051 feet. This famous structure shows off the capabilities of cast iron. The incredible strength of cast iron allows for maximum rigidity with minimum weight. This structure does not use any load bearing walls to support its great height. It marks the beginning of skeleton-and-skin systems of building.

34. Frame Construction… Wood frame construction: A true skeleton-and-skin building method, commonly used in domestic architecture. The mass production of the common nail, together with improved methods and standardization in the process of milling lumber, led to a revolution in home building techniques. Truss: In architecture, a triangular framework that because of its rigidity, can span much wider areas than a single wooden beam.

35. These are diagrams of wood-frame construction, which is the basis for most domestic architecture. The diagram on the right shows a truss. The triangular structure is very rigid, and can span a much wider area than a single wooden beam.

36. Wood frame construction is the foundation for American domestic architecture. Note how the doors and windows are built into place using post-and-lintel building techniques.

37. Steel and Reinforced Concrete Construction… Although urban buildings were using skeleton-and-skin methods with cast iron as the skeleton, the thick walls, or the skin, still carried their own weight, just as stone walls had done for centuries. Reinforced concrete: Concrete in which steel reinforcement bars, or rebars, are placed to both strengthen and make concrete less brittle. This, combined with steel beams, led to the creation of the modern skyscraper. The sheer strength of steel makes the modern skyscraper a reality. Walls no longer have to be incredibly thick at the base in order to support the building. (For example, without the use of reinforced concrete and steel, the walls at the bottom of a 16-story building would need to be six feet thick!)

38. Le Corbusier, Perspective drawing for Domino Housing Project., 1914. The combination of a steel framework with reinforced concrete floors provided the foundation for the modern skyscraper. The space can be expanded any number of ways, and the skin can vary greatly. Windows may be placed anywhere; even the stairway may be moved anywhere.

39. Ludwig Miës van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, Seagram Building, New York City, 1958. This building demonstrates the International Style, with its geometric simplicity.

40. Euro Saarinen TWA Terminal, John F. Kennedy Internantional Airport, New York, 1926. This shows an incredibly different style than the Seagram Building, emphasizing curves and strong contrasts. It is defined by the strong contrast of openness, provided by the broad expanse of windows, and the sculptural mass of the reinforced concrete walls and roof.

41. Rem Koolhaas and Ole Scheeren, OMA, New Headquarters, Central Chinese Television CCTV, Beijing, China, 2008. This structure changes from every view, creating a fantastic and captivating experience.

42. Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain, 1997. The incredibly sculpted architecture creates fluid surfaces that make you forget that you are looking at a building.

43. Adrian Smith and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Burj Khalifa, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The Burj, or central tower, is currently the tallest free-standing structure in the world, at 2,684 feet (more than twice as high as the empire state building).

45. Tom Wills-Wright, Burj Al-Arab, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 1999. This luxury hotel sits on its own island like an enormous wind filled sail. There is a cantilevered helipad, that doubles as the world’s highest tennis court, extends from the font of the building from the 28 th floor.