1. Agenda u Observational research

2. Beginning steps u 1. Determine research question(s) u 2. Determine hypotheses u 3. Narrow behavioral categories to those which answer the research questions.

3. u Make informal observation of participants. –Be familiar with the behaviors exhibited by your participants. –(e.g., go to a volleyball game and watch and note behaviors) u Write your observation categories u Construct a complete list. u Condense to fewer categories later

4. u From literature search -- how did other researchers define behavioral categories. u If use same categories, it’s easier to compare your results with those previously reported.

5. u Decide on coding schemes u Define general and specific subcategories u Define what behaviors will be recorded during observation time

6. u Frequency (within a set time period) u Duration (within a set time period) u Interval Divide observation time into discrete time intervals, then record whether a behavior occurs within each interval.

7. You can’t observe everyone -- Sample u Be realistic u Sample rather than observe and record every occurrence. u Sample by time (period of observation) u Sample by particular participants - limit # of people observed for __ minutes and record only their behavior. u Sample by situation (different settings/ conditions for observations)

8. Benefits of videotaping u Slow down, rewind tape, u Multiple observers u Review several times and see something at later time that you didn’t see at first. u Code later

9. Sources of observer bias u Knowing the goals of study or hypotheses being tested may influence their observations u Example. Coding of male child roughly taking a toy away from another child different than female child doing same thing because hypotheses is males show more interpersonal aggression. u Strategy: Use “blind” observer - unaware of hypotheses.

10. Observer bias u When observer EXPECTS certain behaviors or events to occur. (e.g.Zechmeister exercise) u When interprets rather than simply record behavior. –Inferences may or may not be true. u Strategy: Record behaviors rather than interpretations of behaviors.

11. Personal biases and expectations u May affect how you observe and record behavior. u If you were only 1 observer, couldn’t establish the reliability of your observations. u Strategy: Use 2 or more trained observers.

12. Multiple observers u It is unlikely that multiple observers will always agree. u They will differ in how they see and interpret behavior. u Disagreement can occur if behavior categories are not clearly defined. u Strategy: Establish interrater reliability.

13. Reasons to check interrater reliability u 1. To check that observers are accurate and procedures easily reproduced. u 2. Your observers meet some standard you established u 3. Problems that you detect can be corrected with more training.

14. Simplest way to assess interrater reliability is evaluate % agreement. u Count # of times observers agreed. u Divide this # by total number of observations. u Total # of agreements x 100. u Total # of observations u A percent around 70% is acceptable. u Exact agreement or looser definition of agreement?

15. u Strategy: u You can average scores across observers u Or one observer is named the main observer and the other is secondary observer. The secondary one is only to establish reliability.

18. Naturalistic u Observe participants in natural environment without controlling or manipulating variables. u Avoid changing situation that might affect natural, ongoing behaviors of participants. u Properly conducted naturalistic observation has high external validity

19. u Even act of observing may disturb behavior of those you are watching. u If disturb, then you decrease external validity. u Habituate your participants to your presence u Let your participants get used to you or camera before you begin observation.

20. Reactivity –Individuals change their usual behavior because they know they’re being observed. –“On their best behavior” –Yet researcher wants to see normal behavior u Strategy –Conceal or disguise observer (people aren’t aware they are being observed -- must consider ethics) –If observer is around long enough, participants get used to his presence –Use indirect observation

21. Demand characteristics u Participants try to guess what is expected, and behave like they think the researcher wants them to behave. u Look for cues and information from researcher.

22. Ethnography u Looks at cultural aspects and context of behavior u Researcher becomes immersed in behavioral or social system being studied. –Participant observation »Functioning member of group –Non-participant observation »Observe as nonmember. u Anthropology and sociology

23. u Members who know they are being observed may behave differently than they otherwise would, threatening external validity. u Your interaction as “member” could create even more differences. u Training to not interfere with the natural group process or using observers who are blind to the purposes of the study.

24. Gain access to group or organization you wish to study u (Shopping malls, vs. country club or police stations or classrooms (need permission) u Try to get information about social structure, routines... u Get info in library first u Gain entry to group u You might have to bargain with gatekeepers

25. u Make observations and record data u Write notes, jot down thoughts, u voice recorder, u or wait till end and when alone write all your notes.

26. u Analyze data u Look for themes, topics, issues u Triangulate data u from different sources, methods,

27. u Physical traces –Cans in recycling bin –University of Arizona study of dorm garbage u Archival records –Records of sports teams, stock market –Govt statistics, census –Public records - marriage applications u Mass communications –Analysis of Ann Landers/ Dear Abby letters –Analysis of magazines targeted to teenage girls

28. Sociometry u Identify and measure interpersonal relationships with a group. u e.g. friendship patterns of 3 rd grade students. Children identify who are their friends and who are not their friends. u E.g. Identify if smokers associate primarily with smokers?