1. CPEG3231 Integration of cache and MIPS Pipeline  Data-path control unit design  Pipeline stalls on cache misses

2. CPEG3232 Actions Needed on an I-Cache Miss 1. Compute the value of PC-4. 2. Instruct the main memory to perform a read and wait for the memory to complete its access. 3. Write the cache entry, putting the data from memory in the data portion of the entry, writing the upper bits of the address (from the ALU) into the tag field, and turning the valid bit on. 4. Restart the instruction execution at the first step, which will re- fetch the instruction, this time finding it in the cache.

3. CPEG3233 A Case Study: DEC Station 3100  Separate I-Cache and D-Cache  “Write-through” policy  One-word-line simplifies write-miss handling

4. CPEG3234 How to Handle Read/Write  Write Write-through: for both write hit/miss 1. Index the cache using bits 15-2 of the address. 2. Write both the tag portion (using bits 31 - 16 of the address) and the data portion with the word. 3.Also write the word to main memory using the entire address.

5. CPEG3235 Performance Penalty due to Write-Through on DEC Station 3100  CPI without cache misses: 1.2 (gcc),but with each write takes 10 cycles: CPI becomes 2.3 (gcc) Note: in gcc, 11% of instructions are stores, each takes 10 cycles  Solution: write buffers (in DEC Station 3100: size=4)

6. CPEG3236 Large and Fast: Exploiting Memory Hierarchy Instruction and data miss rates for the DECStation 3100 when executing the different programs. The combined miss rate is the effective miss rate seen. It is obtained by weighting the instruction and data individual miss rates by the frequency of instruction and data references.

7. CPEG3237 Combined I-Cache/D-Cache ?  Hit ratio: Combined may be better: In DECStation 3100: 4.8% vs 5.4%  Bandwidth considerations

8. CPEG3238 The primary method of achieving higher memory bandwidth is to increase the physical or logical width of the memory system. In this figure there are two ways in which the memory bandwidth is improved. The simplest design, (a), uses a memory where all components are one word wide; (b) shows a wider memory, bus, and cache while (c) shows a narrow bus and cache with an interleaved memory. CPU Cache Bus Memo- ry CPU Cache Bus CPU Bu s Memory Multiplexer Cache Memory bank 0 Memory bank 1 Memory bank 2 Memory bank 3 a. One-word-wide memory organization b. Wide memory organizationc. Interleaved memory organization High-Bandwidth Design Alternatives

9. CPEG3239 Review: Major Components of a Computer Processor Control Datapath Memory Devices Input Output

10. CPEG32310 Processor-Memory Performance Gap “Moore’s Law” µProc 55%/year (2X/1.5yr) DRAM 7%/year (2X/10yrs) Processor-Memory Performance Gap (grows 50%/year)

11. CPEG32311 The “Memory Wall”  Logic vs DRAM speed gap continues to grow Clocks per instruction Clocks per DRAM access

12. CPEG32312 Memory Performance Impact on Performance  Suppose a processor executes at l ideal CPI = 1.1 l 50% arith/logic, 30% ld/st, 20% control and that 10% of data memory operations miss with a 50 cycle miss penalty  CPI = ideal CPI + average stalls per instruction = 1.1(cycle) + ( 0.30 (datamemops/instr) x 0.10 (miss/datamemop) x 50 (cycle/miss) ) = 1.1 cycle + 1.5 cycle = 2.6 so 58% of the time the processor is stalled waiting for memory!  A 1% instruction miss rate would add an additional 0.5 to the CPI!

13. CPEG32313 The Memory Hierarchy Goal  Fact: Large memories are slow and fast memories are small  How do we create a memory that gives the illusion of being large, cheap and fast (most of the time)? l With hierarchy l With parallelism

14. CPEG32314 Second Level Cache (SRAM) A Typical Memory Hierarchy Control Datapath Secondary Memory (Disk) On-Chip Components RegFile Main Memory (DRAM) Data Cache Instr Cache ITLB DTLB eDRAM Speed (%cycles): ½’s 1’s 10’s 100’s 1,000’s Size (bytes): 100’s K’s 10K’s M’s G’s to T’s Cost: highest lowest  By taking advantage of the principle of locality l Can present the user with as much memory as is available in the cheapest technology l at the speed offered by the fastest technology

15. CPEG32315 Characteristics of the Memory Hierarchy Increasing distance from the processor in access time L1$ L2$ Main Memory Secondary Memory Processor (Relative) size of the memory at each level Inclusive– what is in L1$ is a subset of what is in L2$ is a subset of what is in MM that is a subset of is in SM 4-8 bytes (word) 1 to 4 blocks 1,024+ bytes (disk sector = page) 8-32 bytes (block)

16. CPEG32316 Memory Hierarchy Technologies  Caches use SRAM for speed and technology compatibility l Low density (6 transistor cells), high power, expensive, fast l Static: content will last “forever” (until power turned off)  Main Memory uses DRAM for size (density) l High density (1 transistor cells), low power, cheap, slow l Dynamic: needs to be “refreshed” regularly (~ every 8 ms) -1% to 2% of the active cycles of the DRAM l Addresses divided into 2 halves (row and column) -RAS or Row Access Strobe triggering row decoder -CAS or Column Access Strobe triggering column selector Dout[15-0] SRAM 2M x 16 Din[15-0] Address Chip select Output enable Write enable 16 21

17. CPEG32317 Memory Performance Metrics  Latency: Time to access one word l Access time: time between the request and when the data is available (or written) l Cycle time: time between requests l Usually cycle time > access time l Typical read access times for SRAMs in 2004 are 2 to 4 ns for the fastest parts to 8 to 20ns for the typical largest parts  Bandwidth: How much data from the memory can be supplied to the processor per unit time l width of the data channel * the rate at which it can be used  Size: DRAM to SRAM ­ 4 to 8  Cost/Cycle time: SRAM to DRAM ­ 8 to 16

18. CPEG32318 Classical RAM Organization (~Square) RowDecoderRowDecoder row address data bit or word RAM Cell Array word (row) line bit (data) lines Each intersection represents a 6-T SRAM cell or a 1-T DRAM cell Column Selector & I/O Circuits column address One memory row holds a block of data, so the column address selects the requested bit or word from that block

19. CPEG32319 data bit Classical DRAM Organization (~Square Planes) RowDecoderRowDecoder row address Column Selector & I/O Circuits column address data bit word (row) line bit (data) lines Each intersection represents a 1-T DRAM cell The column address selects the requested bit from the row in each plane data word... RAM Cell Array

20. CPEG32320 Classical DRAM Operation  DRAM Organization: l N rows x N column x M-bit l Read or Write M-bit at a time l Each M-bit access requires a RAS / CAS cycle Row Address CAS RAS Col AddressRow AddressCol Address N rows N cols DRAM M bit planes Row Address Column Address M-bit Output 1 st M-bit Access 2 nd M-bit Access Cycle Time

21. CPEG32321 N rows N cols DRAM Column Address M-bit Output M bit planes N x M SRAM Row Address Page Mode DRAM Operation  Page Mode DRAM l N x M SRAM to save a row  After a row is read into the SRAM “register” l Only CAS is needed to access other M-bit words on that row l RAS remains asserted while CAS is toggled Row Address CAS RAS Col Address 1 st M-bit Access2 nd M-bit3 rd M-bit4 th M-bit Cycle Time

22. CPEG32322 N rows N cols DRAM Column Address M-bit Output M bit planes N x M SRAM Row Address Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) Operation  After a row is read into the SRAM register l Inputs CAS as the starting “burst” address along with a burst length l Transfers a burst of data from a series of sequential addresses within that row - A clock controls transfer of successive words in the burst – 300MHz in 2004 +1 Row Address CAS RAS Col Address 1 st M-bit Access2 nd M-bit3 rd M-bit4 th M-bit Cycle Time Row Add

23. CPEG32323 Other DRAM Architectures  Double Data Rate SDRAMs – DDR-SDRAMs (and DDR- SRAMs) l Double data rate because they transfer data on both the rising and falling edge of the clock l Are the most widely used form of SDRAMs  DDR2-SDRAMs http://www.corsairmemory.com/corsair/products/tech/memory_basics/153707/main.swf

24. CPEG32324 DRAM Memory Latency & Bandwidth Milestones  In the time that the memory to processor bandwidth doubles the memory latency improves by a factor of only 1.2 to 1.4  To deliver such high bandwidth, the internal DRAM has to be organized as interleaved memory banks DRAMPage DRAM FastPage DRAM Synch DRAM DDR SDRAM Module Width16b 32b64b Year198019831986199319972000 Mb/chip0.060.2511664256 Die size (mm 2 )354570130170204 Pins/chip16 18205466 BWidth (MB/s)13401602676401600 Latency (nsec)225170125756252 Patterson, CACM Vol 47, #10, 2004

25. CPEG32325  The off-chip interconnect and memory architecture can affect overall system performance in dramatic ways Memory Systems that Support Caches CPU Cache Memory bus One word wide organization (one word wide bus and one word wide memory)  Assume 1. 1 clock cycle to send the address 2. 25 clock cycles for DRAM cycle time, 8 clock cycles access time 3. 1 clock cycle to return a word of data  Memory-Bus to Cache bandwidth number of bytes accessed from memory and transferred to cache/CPU per clock cycle 32-bit data & 32-bit addr per cycle on-chip

26. CPEG32326 One Word Wide Memory Organization CPU Cache Memory bus on-chip  If the block size is one word, then for a memory access due to a cache miss, the pipeline will have to stall the number of cycles required to return one data word from memory cycle to send address cycles to read DRAM cycle to return data total clock cycles miss penalty  Number of bytes transferred per clock cycle (bandwidth) for a single miss is bytes per clock

27. CPEG32327 One Word Wide Memory Organization CPU Cache Memory bus on-chip  If the block size is one word, then for a memory access due to a cache miss, the pipeline will have to stall the number of cycles required to return one data word from memory cycle to send address cycles to read DRAM cycle to return data total clock cycles miss penalty  Number of bytes transferred per clock cycle (bandwidth) for a single miss is bytes per clock 1 25 1 27 4/27 = 0.148

28. CPEG32328 One Word Wide Memory Organization, con’t CPU Cache Memory bus on-chip  What if the block size is four words? cycle to send 1 st address cycles to read DRAM cycles to return last data word total clock cycles miss penalty  Number of bytes transferred per clock cycle (bandwidth) for a single miss is bytes per clock

29. CPEG32329 One Word Wide Memory Organization, con’t CPU Cache Memory bus on-chip  What if the block size is four words? cycle to send 1 st address cycles to read DRAM cycles to return last data word total clock cycles miss penalty  Number of bytes transferred per clock cycle (bandwidth) for a single miss is bytes per clock 25 cycles 1 4 x 25 = 100 1 102 (4 x 4)/102 = 0.157

30. CPEG32330 One Word Wide Memory Organization, con’t CPU Cache Memory bus on-chip  What if the block size is four words and if a fast page mode DRAM is used? cycle to send 1 st address cycles to read DRAM cycles to return last data word total clock cycles miss penalty  Number of bytes transferred per clock cycle (bandwidth) for a single miss is bytes per clock

31. CPEG32331 One Word Wide Memory Organization, con’t CPU Cache Memory bus on-chip  What if the block size is four words and if a fast page mode DRAM is used? cycle to send 1 st address cycles to read DRAM cycles to return last data word total clock cycles miss penalty  Number of bytes transferred per clock cycle (bandwidth) for a single miss is bytes per clock 25 cycles 8 cycles 1 25 + 3*8 = 49 1 51 (4 x 4)/51 = 0.314

32. CPEG32332 Interleaved Memory Organization  For a block size of four words cycle to send 1 st address cycles to read DRAM cycles to return last data word total clock cycles miss penalty CPU Cache Memory bank 1 bus on-chip Memory bank 0 Memory bank 2 Memory bank 3  Number of bytes transferred per clock cycle (bandwidth) for a single miss is bytes per clock

33. CPEG32333 Interleaved Memory Organization  For a block size of four words cycle to send 1 st address cycles to read DRAM cycles to return last data word total clock cycles miss penalty CPU Cache Memory bank 1 bus on-chip Memory bank 0 Memory bank 2 Memory bank 3  Number of bytes transferred per clock cycle (bandwidth) for a single miss is bytes per clock 25 cycles (4 x 4)/30 = 0.533 1 25 + 3 = 28 1 30

34. CPEG32334 DRAM Memory System Summary  Its important to match the cache characteristics l caches access one block at a time (usually more than one word)  with the DRAM characteristics l use DRAMs that support fast multiple word accesses, preferably ones that match the block size of the cache  with the memory-bus characteristics l make sure the memory-bus can support the DRAM access rates and patterns l with the goal of increasing the Memory-Bus to Cache bandwidth