1. OUR Ecological Footprint - 11 1. 11

2. The hierarchical nature and processes of different levels of ecological systems:

3. Individual organism: How do structure, physiology, and behavior lead to the individual’s survival and reproduction? Population: What determines the number of individuals and their variation in time and space? Community: What determines the diversity and relative abundance of organisms living together? Ecosystem: How does energy flow and matter cycle in the biotic and abiotic environment? Biosphere: How do air, water, and the energy and chemicals they contain circulate globally?

4. Ecosystem Ecology: Interactions between abiotic and biotic factors at a given location as relates to: energy flow and cycling of matter. IB 452: Ecosystem Ecology fall 2009 IB 440: Plants and Global Change spring 2009

5. Energy flow in ecosystems Objectives: The ecosystem obeys thermodynamic principles. Trophic pyramids for energy, biomass, numbers Primary production: efficiencies and factors causing variation among biomes Secondary production: Intertrophic transfers: efficiencies and food chain length Intratrophic transfers: efficiencies

6. Ecosystem: an energy- transforming machine Exchanges of matter and energy among components Obey thermodynamic principles that govern energy transformations Law 1: Conservation of energy “balance the books” Law 2: Inefficient transformation of energy “heat tax”

7. Coupling of oxidations and reductions = basis of energy flow in ecosystems.

8. Energy flows through biochemical pathways. Energy transfer decreases after each transformation.

9. Heat is lost as energy flows through food chain. Matter recycles… Blue = matter Red = energy

10. Energy flows through: Food chain – energy passes through many steps or links Trophic level (feeding level) = each link in food chain Two parallel food chains –Plant-based –Decomposer-based

11. Food chains represent energy relationships. Producers (autotrophs) Consumers (heterotrophs) Figure 1

12. Food energy available to the human population depends on their trophic level. Figure 2

13. ***Pyramids: Which can be inverted? Why? Energy Biomass Numbers Figure 3

14. Biomagnification: Hazardous agents may accumulate in an inverse pyramid and cause environmental diseases.

15. Primary Production: by plants process of converting light energy to chemical bond energy in carbohydrates (via photosynthesis!) for each g of C assimilated, 39 KJ energy stored rate determines rate of energy supply to rest of ecosystem

16. GrossPP = NetPP + Respiration Day + night Day Figure 4

17. IRGA - Infrared gas analzyer: measure CO 2 in vs. out: in sunlight (NPP) and dark (respiration); estimate GPP

18. Indirect measures of GPP Figure 5

19. *** Measurements of PP by IRGA Full sun: CO 2 depleted from chamber at rate of 12 mg CO 2 per 100 cm 2 leaf area per hour Dark: CO 2 released by leaf into chamber at rate of 1.5 mg CO 2 per 100 cm 2 leaf area per hour What is the rate of NPP for this leaf? Explain. What is the rate of respiration for this leaf? Explain. What is the rate of GPP for this leaf? Explain. Figure 6

20. Limits on Productivity Photosynthetic efficiency (% energy from sun converted to NPP) = 1-2% Net production efficiency (NPP/GPP) 30% tropics 75-80% temperate ***why difference? Light Temperature Precipitation Nutrients CO 2

21. NPP vs. Temperature and Precipitation Figure 7

22. NPP vs. nitrogen (N in rubisco in PS) Figure 8

23. NPP + > [CO 2 ] To what extent is PS limited by amount of CO 2 ? To what extent does vegetation act as a C sink?

24. Hypothesis: Sp richness and functional diversity increase NPP (via more biomass). Figure 9

25. Results Figure 10

26. Remote sensing of primary production in oceans.

27. 1° productivity of aquatic ecosystems depends on [nutrients]. Freshwater lakes: P often limiting; with low N/P, blue-green algae increase NPP because they can fix additional N; with high N/P, green algal ‘blooms’ occur Open ocean: near shore: N often limiting open ocean: silica and Fe more limiting

28. Question: Is NPP in the open ocean limited by nutrients (e.g Fe)? Hypothesis: NPP in the open ocean is limited by availability of iron. Experimental setup? Prediction: Amount of chlorophyll a increases both at surface and 30 m deep in area with added Fe relative to area without Fe. Figure 11

30. What is the conclusion? Figure 12

31. Global variation in estimated NPP

32. NPP in different biomes: (blue = water green = land) % area X NPP/area = % of total NPP Figure 13

33. Secondary production By non-photosynthesizers Amount of chemical energy in consumer’s food converted to biomass /unit time

34. Energy flow within and between trophic levels Figure 14

35. Energy transfer between trophic levels depends on: NPP efficiencies of transfer between trophic levels residence time longer time--> > accumulation of energy

36. 90% lost at each level 100 10 1.1 Energy Pyramid: 10% law of energy transfer; 2nd law limits number of levels.

37. sun 1 20 15 10 Ecological (food chain) efficiency = net production of trophic level_n net production of trophic level n-1 Figure 15

38. Ecological (food chain ) efficiency  Production of each trophic level = 5 – 20% that of level below it Replaces the “10% law”= an average; not fixed Often lower on land (5-15%) than aquatic (15-20%)

39. Energy (kcal m -2 yr -1 ) Energy production Primary Primary Secondary __or removal_____ Producers Consumers Consumers Non-consumed production 704 70 13 Removed by consumers 176 34 0 Respiration 234 44 18 Gross production (totals) 1114____ 148 ____ 31____ 1) Calculate NPP. _____ 2) Calculate Ecological Efficiency during 2 transfers (= food chain efficiency). ______ ______ 3) What ultimately happens to 1) the energy and 2) the biomass that is not consumed in this lake? Figure 16

40. What limits the length of the food chain? Figure 17

41. What limits length of food chain? H1: Energetics Availability of energy limits to 5-7 levels Depends on: NPP energy needed by consumers average ecological efficiency H2: Dynamic stability Longer chains less stable because: Fluctuations at lower trophic levels magnified at higher levels ---> extinction of top predators.

42. ***Do aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems have more trophic levels? What factor contributes most to variation in food chain length among these ecosystems? Community NPP Consumer Ecological # Trophic Ingestion Efficiency% Levels Open ocean 500 0.1 25 7.1 Coastal marine 8000 10.0 20 5.1 Grassland 2000 1.0 10 4.3 Tropical forest 8000 10.0 5 3.2 Figure 18

43. Energy flow within a trophic level Figure 19

44. Intratrophic energy transfers: Exploitation Efficiency = ingestion by trophic level n___ production of trophic level n-1 Herbivores 20% and carnivores 30% If production and consumption aren’t balanced, energy accumulates; E.g. Non-consumed production of plants and herbivores 1) accumulates as (lake) sediments or 2) undergoes respiration by decomposers.

45. Assimilated energy = ingestion – egestion Assimilation efficiency = assimilation / ingestion primarily a function of food quality; i.e. amount of non-digestible material Secondary production = assimilated energy – respiration – excretion

46. Net production efficiency = Production/Assimilation

47. Net production efficiency Depends on metabolic activity Most active animals have lowest values Cost of maintenance and activity greatest Warm-blooded vertebrates : birds <1% small mammals <6% Cold-blooded animals: 15-75%

48. Some general rules Assimilation efficiency increases at higher trophic levels. Net and gross production efficiencies decrease at higher trophic level. Ecological efficiency averages about 10%. About 1% of NPP ends up as production on third trophic level; The pyramid of energy narrows quickly.