1. Neurones & the Action Potential Objective: To understand how neurones conduct impulses from one part of the body to another. Write down anything you can remember from GCSE about the nervous system: Hints.. What are some of it’s roles? What are the structures involved in it? http://www.teachers.tv/video/21091

2. The Nervous System

3. STRUCTURE They have three distinct parts: (1) Cell body, (2) Dendrites, and (3) the Axon The particular type of neuron that stimulates muscle tissue is called a motor neuron. Dendrites receive impulses and conduct them toward the cell body.

4. Myelinated Axons The axon is a single long, thin extension that sends impulses to another neuron. They vary in length and are surrounded by a many- layered lipid and protein covering called the myelin sheath, produced by the schwann cells. Schwann cell

5. Sensory neurons - carry impulses to theSensory neurons - carry impulses to the relay of the brain relay of the brain Relay neurons - interpret impulses Relay neurons - interpret impulses Motor neurons - carry impulses to the musclesMotor neurons - carry impulses to the muscles Types of Neurons Based on: Mader, S., Inquiry Into Life, McGraw-Hill

6. Reflex Arc http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/reflexarcs.html

7. Resting Potential In a resting neuron (one that is not conducting an impulse), there is a difference in In a resting neuron (one that is not conducting an impulse), there is a difference in electrical charges on the outside and inside of the plasma membrane. The outside has a positive charge and the inside has a negative charge. http:// www.brookscole.com/chemistry_d/templates/student_resources/shared_resources/animations/ion_pump/ionpump.html

8. Contribution of Active Transport There are different numbers of potassium ions (K + ) and sodium ions (Na + ) on either side of the membrane. Even when a nerve cell is not conducting an impulse, for each ATP molecule that’s hydrolysed, it is actively transporting 3 molecules Na + out of the cell and 2 molecules of K + into the cell, at the same time by means of the sodium-potassium pump.

9. Contribution of facilitated diffusion The sodium-potassium pump creates a concentration and electrical gradient for Na + and K +, which means that K + tends to diffuse (‘leak’) out of the cell and Na + tends to diffuse in. BUT, the membrane is much more permeable to K +, so K + diffuses out along its concentration gradient much more slowly.

10. RESULTS IN: a net positive charge outside & a net negative charge inside. Such a membrane is POLARISED

11. Nerve Impulse Stimulation of neuron, opens channels soStimulation of neuron, opens channels so that sodium (Na + ) goes in, depolarizing the that sodium (Na + ) goes in, depolarizing the membrane membrane The adjacent section of membrane allowsThe adjacent section of membrane allows Na+ to go in, depolarizing it Na+ to go in, depolarizing it This wave of depolarization continues at aThis wave of depolarization continues at a rapid rate down the neuron, resulting in a rapid rate down the neuron, resulting in a nerve impulse traveling to the brain in nerve impulse traveling to the brain in milliseconds milliseconds

12. + + + + - - - - - + + + + - - - - - + + + + + - - - 0 0 Neuron Polarized membrane of resting neuron Sodium (Na) moves inside to depolarize Nerve impulse is wave of depolarization moving down neuron Nerve impulse Nerve Impulse

13. Action Potential When the cell membranes are stimulated, there is a change in the permeability of the membrane to sodium ions (Na + ). The membrane becomes more permeable to Na + and K +, therefore sodium ions diffuse into the cell down a concentration gradient. The entry of Na + disturbs the resting potential and causes the inside of the cell to become more positive relative to the outside.

14. DEPOLARISATION As the outside of the cell has become more positive than the inside of the cell, the membrane is now DEPOLARISED. When enough sodium ions enter the cell to depolarise the membrane to a critical level (threshold level) an action potential arises which generates an impulse. In order for the neuron to generate an action potential the membrane potential must reach the threshold of excitation.

15. Speed of Nerve Impulses Impulses travel very rapidly along neurones. The presence of a myelin sheath greatly increases the velocity at which impulses are conducted along the axon of a neuron. The presence of a myelin sheath greatly increases the velocity at which impulses are conducted along the axon of a neuron. Between the sheaths are the Nodes of Ranvier, Between the sheaths are the Nodes of Ranvier, where sodium channels are concentrated. Action potentials jump from one to the next. This is called SALTATORY CONDUCTION

16. Action potentials go faster along axons with bigger diameters, because there’s less electrical resistance. Action potentials go faster along axons with bigger diameters, because there’s less electrical resistance. They go faster as temperature increases, up to around 40 o C. After that, the proteins begin to denature. They go faster as temperature increases, up to around 40 o C. After that, the proteins begin to denature. Speed of Nerve Impulses

17. All-or-None Principle Throughout depolarisation, the Na+ continues to rush inside until the action potential reaches its peak and the sodium gates close. If the depolarisation is not great enough to reach threshold, then an action potential and hence an impulse are not produced. This is called the All-or-None Principle. A threshold stimulus must be applied to get an action potential.

18. Refractory Period Straight after an action potential has been generated, the membrane enters a refractory period when it can’t be stimulated, because sodium channels are recovering and can’t be opened.