1. Social and Personality Development in Infancy Chapter 6:

2. IN THIS CHAPTER

3. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 6.1 How do Freud’s and Erikson’s views of personality development in the first 2 years differ? 6.2 What are the main ideas of attachment theory? 6.3 How does synchrony affect parent–infant relations? 6.4 What are the four phases of attachment and the behaviors associated with them? 6.5 What are the four attachment patterns that Ainsworth discovered? 6.6 What variables might affect a parent’s ability to establish an attachment relationship with an infant? 6.7 What are the long-term consequences of attachment quality? 6.8 In what ways do patterns of attachment vary across cultures? 6.9 On which dimensions of temperament do most developmentalists agree?

4. LEARNING OBJECTIVES (con’t) 6.10 What are the roles of heredity, neurological processes, and environment in the formation of temperament? 6.11 How do the subjective self, the objective self, and the emotional self develop during the first 2 years? 6.12 Why is it difficult to study the effects of nonparental care on development? 6.13 What might be the effects of nonparental care on physical and cognitive development? 6.14 What does research suggest about the risks of nonparental care with respect to social development? 6.15 What variables should be taken into account in interpretations of research on nonparental care?

5. THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Psychoanalytic Perspectives: Freud and Erikson Freud: psychosexual stage related to infant attempts at needs satisfaction Oral stage Mother–child symbiotic relationship Nursing; fixation Erikson: psychosocial stage in which attending to infant needs and social development is important Trust versus mistrust The relationship goes beyond feeding.

6. ADOPTION AND DEVELOPMENT Non-institutionalized children adopted before the age of six months are generally indistinguishable from non-adopted children in security of attachment, cognitive development, and social adjustment. Children adopted at later ages, with histories of institutionalization and/or abuse and/or neglect, tend to have more cognitive and emotional problems. Reactive attachment disorder may develop. Parenting may be challenging.

7. You Decide Decide which of these two statements you most agree with and think about how you would defend your position: 1.Raising an adopted child differs little from raising one’s own biological child. 2.Raising an adopted child is more complex than raising one’s own biological child.

8. ATTACHMENT The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant Synchrony: opportunity for parent–infant development of mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviors Takes practice to develop Provides developmental benefits

9. THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Ethological Perspectives: John Bowlby Attachment: emotional bond in which a person’s sense of security is bound up in the relationship Strong emotional bond making is innate. Bonds are maintained by instinctive behaviors that create and sustain proximity.

10. ATTACHMENT The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant A Mother’s Bond with Her Infant The bond is dependent on synchrony. Mothers typically provide more routine caregiving than fathers do. After first few weeks, mothers talk to and smile more at their babies. When mothers observe or interact with their infants, their bodies release oxytocin, a hormone that is correlated with empathy and physical relaxation.

11. ATTACHMENT The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant A Father’s Bond with His Infant The relationship depends on synchrony. Fathers have same repertoire as mothers do. After the first few weeks, fathers begin to spend more time playing with the baby. Watching and interacting with babies stimulates vasopressin in fathers, a hormone that is linked to arousal, aggression, and physical activity. Culture may impact the interpretation of study results and the benefits of father involvement.

12. ATTACHMENT The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents Characteristics of Attachment Safe haven Secure base Proximity maintenance Separation distress Now let’s look at how several theorists operationalize this construct.

13. ATTACHMENT The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents Establishing Attachment: Bowlby’s Four Phases Non-focused orienting and signaling (zero to three months) Focus on one or more figures (three to six months) Secure base behavior (six to twenty-four months) Internal model (24 months and beyond)

14. ATTACHMENT The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents How would you recognize each of Bowlby’s phases? What behaviors would you expect to see?

15. ATTACHMENT The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents Attachment Behaviors

16. ATTACHMENT Secure and Insecure Attachments Mary Ainsworth Protocol: the Strange Situation Attachment styles: Secure attachment Insecure/avoidant attachment Insecure/ambivalent attachment Insecure/disorganized attachment

17. ATTACHMENT Stability of Attachment Quality Attachment Stability Dependent on consistency of child’s life circumstances Influenced by major upheavals Internal models elaborated from year one until the age of four or five

18. ATTACHMENT Caregiver Characteristics and Attachment Caregivers and Attachment Several characteristics influence the attachment process: Emotional availability Contingent responsiveness

19. ATTACHMENT Secure and Insecure Attachments Insecure Attachments Insecure/avoidant attachment Insecure/ambivalent attachment Insecure/disorganized attachment

20. ATTACHMENT Caregiver Characteristics and Attachment Other Caregiver Characteristics Influencing Secure Attachment Marital status Education Age SES Mental health

21. ATTACHMENT Attachment Quality: Long-Term Consequences The Securely Attached Are... More sociable More positive in relationships with friends Less clingy and dependent on teachers Less aggressive and disruptive More emotionally mature Continues into Adolescence More likely to be leaders Have higher self-esteem

22. ATTACHMENT Attachment Quality: Long-Term Consequences Attachment Quality and Consequences Increased sociability throughout early, middle, and late adulthood Influence on parenting behaviors Foundation for future social relationships

23. CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS OF ATTACHMENT Categories

24. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT Personality: stable patterns in how people relate to those around them Temperament: basic behavioral and emotional predispositions

25. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT Dimensions of temperament: How are these theorist alike? Different? Thomas and Chess Buss and Plomin How might results differ when temperament is viewed as a trait rather than a category?

26. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT Origins and Stability of Temperament Heredity Identical twins are more alike in temperament than fraternal twins are. Long-Term Stability Stable across long periods of time

27. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT Neurological Processes Heredity Basic differences in behaviors related to underlying neurological processes Neurotransmitters regulate brain responses to new information and unusual situations. It is still difficult to demonstrate conclusively that neurological differences are either cause or effect.

28. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT Origins and Stability of Temperament Environment Sandra Scarr  Niche-picking Thomas and Chess  Goodness of fit Synchronous Relationships Parental influence with children at temperamental extremes

29. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN TEMPERAMENT Temperamental stereotyping may influence the quality of the parent–infant relationship. Temperamental differences between boys and girls are much smaller than the differences perceived by parents and other adults. Yet behavioral geneticists argue that these differences are inborn.

30. 1.In what ways might stereotypes influence the methods that researchers use to study gender differences in temperament? 2.How do differences between men and women, which have evolved over many years, contribute to expectations about how male and female infants differ in temperament? In other words, in your view, do adults engage in what might be called “backward generalization” from adults to infants with regard to their opinions about the existence of gender differences early in life?

31. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT Understanding Infant Sense of Self Subjective Self Objective Self Emotional Self

32. STOP AND THINK! During the same months in which infants are developing an internal model of attachment and exploring their own unique temperament, they are also developing a unique sense of self. What implication does this have for parents and caregivers?

33. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT Self-Concept The Subjective Self Awareness by the child that he is separate from others and endures over time Appears by 8–12 months, at the same time as object permanence The Objective Self A toddler comes to understand that he is an object in the world. The self has properties, such as gender.

34. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT Studying Self-Awareness Rouge Test (Lewis and Brooks) Children at 21 months of age show self- recognition in a mirror. What does this tell us about children’s development? How do you know?

35. PERSONALITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND SELF-CONCEPT The Emotional Self First, babies learn to identify changes in emotional expression. Gradually they learn to “read” and respond to facial expressions. With age and experience, infants learn to interpret the emotional perceptions of others in order to anticipate actions and guide their own behavior.

36. TRUE OR FALSE? Nonparental, quality care is beneficial for all children.

37. EFFECTS OF NONPARENTAL CARE Overview Arrangements vary considerably. Time in care varies. Some children are in multiple care settings. Younger children are less likely to receive nonparental care.

38. NONPARENTAL CARE ARRANGEMENTS FOR CHILDREN UNDER 6 IN THE U.S

39. EFFECTS OF NONPARENTAL CARE Effects on Cognitive Development High-quality daycare has beneficial effects, especially for children from poor families. Later scores in reading and math are related to daycare entry age and poverty.

40. EFFECTS OF NONPARENTAL CARE Effects on Social Development Infant daycare has negative effects on attachment if started when the child is under one year of age. Parents whose behaviors are associated with insecure attachment have children who are negatively affected by early daycare. Early daycare entry is associated with greater risks for social problems in school-aged children.

41. EFFECTS OF NONPARENTAL CARE Research Challenges Complex interaction among numerous variables in all care types Nonparental care varies in quality and structure. Maternal attitudes toward care arrangements vary. The effects of multiple care settings can be difficult to separate.

42. EFFECTS OF NONPARENTAL CARE What’s Responsible? Nonparental care may induce child stress, causing higher levels of cortisol. Variations in ways stress-induced related to child age and temperament Individual and gender differences interact with nonparental care.

43. CHOOSING A DAYCARE CENTER Low teacher/child ratio Small group size Clean, colorful space, adapted to child play Daily plan Sensitive caregivers Knowledgeable caregivers

44. Reflection 1.What do you think Rey should do to ease his son’s transition from family care to a childcare center? 2.One of the criteria is “sensitive caregivers.” What kinds of caregiver behaviors might indicate sensitivity?