1. The Death of Massive Stars What about the final iron cores of massive stars?

2. H → He He → C, O C → Ne, Na, Mg, O Ne → O, Mg O burning: 3.97 ms 23:59:59.99997 O → Si, S, P H → He He → C, O C → Ne, Na, Mg, O Ne → O, Mg Si burning: 0.03 ms The final 0.03 msec!! O → Si, S, P Si → Fe, Co, Ni 25 M SUN : 0.5 yr 25 M SUN : 1 yr

3. Iron Core Si > Fe Fe When the Iron core reaches its Chandrasekhar mass (about 1.4 M SUN ), the pressure of the degenerate electron gas cannot hold the core up against Gravity – the iron core starts to collapse As the iron core collapses, the electrons and Iron nuclei get squashed together. Electrons combine with protons in the nuclei to form more neutrons. - this decreases the pressure and speeds up the collapse Collapse takes only a few thousandths of a second 500km Core Collapse Supernovae

4. When the core reaches a size of about 50 km, the material is a degenerate gas of about 70% neutrons, 30% protons, and the temperature is about 100,000,000,000 K Pressure of this gas halts the collapse. The core is now a proto-neutron star. The outer layers are still falling in. A vast stream of neutrinos are flowing out from the proto-neutron star

5. 5 core collapse supernova mechanism Fe core inner core pre SN star 1. infalling outer core outgoing shock from rebounce proto neutron star 2. infalling outer core proto neutron star stalled shock 3. revived shock proto neutron star matter flow gets reversed - explosion 4. neutrinos neutrino heated layer

7. Core Collapse Supernovae The outer layers of the star are blown away by the enormous energy released during the collapse in the form of neutrinos (99% of the energy) and light (the remaining 1%). Luminosity of supernova is 10 billion times greater than that of the Sun Can outshine its galaxy for a few days Core collapse supernovae occur at a rate of about 1 per century per galaxy

8. Core Collapse Supernovae in our Galaxy 1054 A.D. – Chinese astronomers observe ‘guest star’, visible during the day We see the remnant of the supernova as the Crab nebula in Taurus

9. Core Collapse Supernovae in our Galaxy Tycho’s supernova 1572 A.D. in Cassiopeia

10. Core Collapse Supernovae in our Galaxy Kepler’s supernova 1605 A.D. in Ophiuchus

11. Supernova 1987a

14. Core Collapse Supernovae in other galaxies

16. Supernova 1994D in NGC 4526

17. Supernova Lightcurves Supernova classification: Type II : Hydrogen lines seen in spectrum Type I : No hydrogen lines seen Type II are all the result of iron core-collapse

18. Heavy Element Production in Supernovae Stars can only manufacture elements up to iron through fusion reactions in their core Enormous temperatures and energy release in supernovae can cause fusion of heavier elements through the r-process – rapid capture of neutrons by nuclei Most heavy elements around us are manufactured this way

19. What about the left over collapsed core? Possibility 1: for stars less than 25 to 30 M SUN, the core stabilises and becomes a neutron star

20. Neutron Star Vital Statistics Radius: 10km Mass: 1.4 M SUN Composition: A fluid of about 90% neutrons, 10% protons Temperature: about 10,000,000,000 K at birth, cools rapidly

21. Neutron Star Vital Statistics Average density 10 14-15 g/cc Equivalent density: – Take all humans on Earth…..... And compress to the size of a sugar cube Gravitational force at surface: 100,000,000,000 times greater than Earth

22. Pulsars Discovered 1967 by Jocelyn Bell by accident Pulsed radio emission detected from source beyond our solar system Received a burst of radio waves once every 1.337 seconds Nicknamed LGM1 Actually a rotating neutron star

23. Pulsars Very strong magnetic field accelerates particles towards the magnetic poles, causing Emission of radio waves in beams out from the poles Poles are not aligned with rotation axis: If we are in the line-of-sight of the beam, we see a pulse of radio waves every time the star rotates

24. PSR B0329+54 1.4 times per second

25. VELA 11 times per second

26. CRAB 30 times per second

27. PSR J0437-4715 174 times per second

28. PSR B1937+21 176 times per second

31. Black Holes At the end of the lives of stars greater than 25-30 M SUN, neutrons in the collapsing core eventually cannot provide enough pressure to support the proto-neutron star against its gravity, and it collapses further. What happens next?

32. Relativity 1905: Einstein publishes special theory of relativity 1915: Einstein publishes general theory of relativity Speed of light = 300,000 km/s (180,000 miles/s) 1. Speed of light is a constant and nothing can travel faster

34. Relativity 1905: Einstein publishes special theory of relativity 1915: Einstein publishes general theory of relativity Speed of light = 300,000 km/s (180,000 miles/s) 1. Speed of light is a constant and nothing can travel faster 2. The faster something moves, the slower time appears to move for it -For every second that passes on Earth, 0.99999999967 seconds pass on the international space station (orbiting at about 77,000 mph) - adds up to about 4 seconds difference per year -GPS satellites need to correct for this otherwise they will give the wrong position by about 10km after one day! This is called time dilation.

35. Relativity 3. Gravity is not a force like any other: it is really the curvature of space-time For two objects, the one in the stronger gravitational field will see time running slower for the object in the weaker gravitational field. We are in a stronger gravitational field than the GPS satellites, so clocks on the GPS satellite will appear to run slower. If this is not taken into account, errors of about 10km per day would accumulate. This is gravitational time dilation

36. Relativity 3.. Gravity is not a force like any other: it is really the curvature of space-time Light moving outwards in a gravitational field will lose energy – it becomes redder; light falling in becomes bluer. This is gravitational red/blue shift

37. Relativity 3.. Gravity is not a force like any other: it is really the curvature of space-time If an object is rotating, it will drag space-time around with it like a whirlpool.

38. Escape Velocity How fast do you have to throw a ball up for it to escape The Earth completely? Depends on the mass of the Earth and your distance from the center of the Earth. At Earth’s surface: 25,000 mph (11km/s) From the top of a 1000 mile high tower, 22,000 mph (10km/s) From the surface of the Sun? (Mass 1M SUN, radius 700,000km): 1,400,000 mph (620km/s) From the surface of a white dwarf (Mass 1M SUN, same radius As Earth): 14,600,000 mph (6,500 km/s) From the surface of a neutron star (Mass 1M SUN, radius 10km): 370,000,000mph (165,000 km/s)

39. Escape Velocity Earth: 11 km/s Sun: 620 km/s White Dwarf: 6,500 km/s Neutron Star: 165,000 km/s 1783: Rev. John Mitchell noticed a strange consequence of Newton’s laws of motion and gravity: an object with the same density as the Sun but 500 times its radius would have an escape velocity greater than the speed of light Speed of light = 300,000 km/s (180,000 miles/s) Escape velocity of a neutron star is already close! How much further would it have to collapse before the escape velocity exceeded the speed of light? Down to 3 km If an object has an escape velocity greater then the speed of light, then nothing, not even light, can escape its surface. From the outside, We would never see anything come from that object. It is a Black Hole.

40. Schwarzchild Radius How small an object must become before its escape velocity exceeds the speed of light. Sun: 3 km Earth: 0.9 cm (1/3 of an inch) A human: 10 -23 m (10,000,000 times smaller than a proton)

41. Black Holes At the end of the lives of stars greater than 25-30 M SUN, neutrons in the collapsing core eventually cannot provide enough pressure to support the proto-neutron star against its gravity, and it collapses further. What happens next? Answer: it collapses inwards until all of its matter is within The Schwarzchild radius (3km). It is then a black hole.

42. Black Holes Any event that takes place inside the Schwarzchild radius of a black hole can never be seen by the outside universe. The Schwarzchild radius is effectively the boundary of the black hole (its surface), and is called the event horizon. The only things we can tell about the matter inside the black hole are Its mass Its spin Its electric charge Far from the black hole, gravity appears to be normal If the Sun were to suddenly collapse into a black hole, the orbits of the planets would be unaffected (we wouldn’t be ‘sucked in’) Very close to the black hole, gravity is extremely strong. If you get closer than 3 times the Schwarzchild radius (9 km for a solar-mass black hole), you would be unable to escape.