1. Nigeria

3. Precolonial Era (800-1600) “ Political Traditions ” Trade Connections – Sahara Desert; Niger River & Ocean Access Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam,Sharia emerges as dominant political principle in the North Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity Complex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local governance. Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.

4. Legacy of Slavery

5. Colonial Era (1860-1960) Authoritarian Rule – British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers ’ responsibility to the people Interventionist State – the British trained chiefs to operate government to achieve economic goals. This set in place expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers. Individualism – a tendency of chiefs to think about personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community

6. Colonial Era Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the southeast and southwest. Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba. British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others.

7. British Colonialism

8. Independence Era (1960- Present) Parliamentary vs. Presidential System – Parliamentary system from 1960-1979. The country switched to presidential system with separate legislature and independent judiciary, but neither has been able to check power of the president Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of large population. They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their dominance, this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military officers seized power.

9. Independence

10. Independence Era Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and political corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War (1967-1970) Personalized Rule/Corruption Federalism – Nigerian leaders set up federal system, with powers being delegated to state and local governments. Military presidents did not allow states to have legitimate sovereignty. Economic dependence on Oil

11. Legitimacy Nigeria became independent in 1960, making it hard to establish legitimacy Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, and/or religious lines. Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “ rule of law ”, Military rule/Personalized authority Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank accounts General Ibrahim Babangida (1985- 1993) General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)

12. Babangida

13. Public Authority & Political Power “ National Question ” differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed. In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one state Regional disagreements & hostilities Problems traditionally solved by military force and authoritarianism

15. Political Culture Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM) Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients, leads to corruption and decreases transparency State Control/Underdeveloped Society Civil society refers to voluntary associations that lie outside government control. Modernity vs. Tradition Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era Religious Conflict

16. Ethnic Groups

17. Demographics Poverty – 70% of Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living in absolute poverty. Gap between Rich & Poor Health Issues – Nigeria has the second highest rate of people living with AIDS/HIV Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are 83% men, 71% for women)

18. Poverty

19. Political Cleavages Ethnicity – Nigeria has more than ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions. Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities Social Class –The elite maintain their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Elite acquire wealth through access to state treasury; educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

20. Wealth Gap

21. Prebendalism Personalized system of rule Personal offices treated like “ fiefdoms ” Large patronage networks based on personal loyalty Local government officials gain support of villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron bosses Most favors exchanged by political elites Corruption and informal influence are rampant Does however represent established form of political participation

23. Attitudes toward Government Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government Corruption Military Rule Weakness of Civil Society Nigerians support democracy but are skeptical

24. Protests & Social Movements Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa) Targeted the international oil companies, especially in the Niger River Delta In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied Chevron’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days Ethnic groups Women ’ s Movement President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices Nigerian legislature has very low female representation

25. Oil Dependence

26. Protests

27. Boko Haram An Islamic terrorist group targeting Christians and Westerners.

28. Interest Groups A large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with political parties Religious interest groups are important in Nigeria Citizens have worked around militar authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.

29. Interest Groups Labor Unions In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government ’s attempt to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers Business Interests Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated outside the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s Human Rights Groups Promote democratic reforms Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and professional groups (doctors, lawyers)

30. Political Parties Nigeria has a multi-party system with two or three stronger parties. People ’ s Democratic Party (PDP) Well-established Party Party of all four democratically elected presidents Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the PDP Usually alternates between Muslim and Christian Candidates All Nigeria People ’ s Party (ANPP) Tends to receive more support from the Muslim North Receives about one third of the vote

31. Mass Media Nigeria has well-developed, independent press Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians All 36 states have their own radio stations

33. Institutions of National Government Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory) Three branches of government Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branch Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the National government

34. Elections & Electoral Procedures Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national. On the national level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states.

35. Presidential Elections If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place. President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states A purely regional candidate can not win

37. Election Fraud Currently 5 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or delay Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) Attempted to cleanse electoral process International teams concluded elections were corrupt Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious

39. The Executive The president has very strong powers Propose a program of policies Appoint cabinet officials Commander-in-chief Signs bills Meets with foreign officials

40. Muhammandu Buhari

41. Legislative Elections Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states, and one from federal capital territory of Abuja Elected by direct popular vote 360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives) Elected from single member districts by plurality vote Regional representation dominates in both houses. Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria

42. Legislature Senate 109 Senators 3 from each of the 36 states 1 from Abuja district Directly elected by popular vote Senators are ethnically and religiously diverse National Assembly Formerly called House of Representatives 360 member representatives Single-member districts, elected by plurality vote

44. Legislature Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a government contract

45. Judiciary Presidential cronies appointed as justices Judicial review exists in theory Shari ’ a courts exist along with courts developed on British model Civil Liberties Violations: In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and died in custody. In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers Today, members of Boko Haram report being detained and tortured

47. Bureaucracy British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial period Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs Civil service sector continued to grow after independence Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common. Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, Prebendalism.

49. Bureaucracy-Parastatals Most government agencies are parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to PEMEX in Mexico) Provide commercial and social welfare services Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president ’ s patronage system Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidies Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and petroleum

50. Bureaucracy-Parastatals In Nigeria, corporatism is furthered by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it is referred to as State Corporatism Parastatals insure that the state controls private interests as well as fulfills social & economic functions Parastatals serve as contact point between government & business interests, but state ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)

51. Military Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria “ Military in Government ” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branch “ Military in Barracks ” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power. Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character. Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflict Nigeria has send troops to other nations under ECOMOG

52. Economic Issues Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria ’ s wealth Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in poverty Nigeria is a rentier state, in which a significant portion of government revenue is generated through rent Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials

54. Oil Dependence Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria international leverage OPEC member Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970s Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus

55. Oil

56. Structural Adjustment 1980s, Nigeria sought assistance from international organizations to deal with debt crisis World Bank & IMF involvement Restructure & diversification of Nigerian economy Privatize parastatals Cut government spending “ Shock Treatment ” not very successful Parastatals still under government control Debt repayment had to be restructured

58. Reforms Economic Reforms of the late 1990s Further privatization of state-owned industry Limitations on economic controls of the central government Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria Increase in public wages Hope of decreasing instances of corruption Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices