1. What are the future options for the ethnic armed actors in Myanmar? The importance of citizenship and representation Helene Maria Kyed, Senior Researcher Danish Institute for International Studies

2. Key arguments A discussion of future (re)integration options for EAO members, including lower and middle ranks, is necessary to create trust in the peace process and ensure sustainable peace Conventional DDR is insufficient: disarmament as first step in the process is unrealistic and economic incentives to integration are insufficient due to the long history and politics of conflict. Different integration options need to be linked to questions of (ethnic) citizenship and representation

3. Citizenship and Representation? Integration options should consider: 1) EAOs’ legitimacy as representatives of ethnic groups. How can they re-invent themselves from armed to civilian representatives? 2) How and to what extent do integration of EAO members support ethnic minorities de facto cultural, social and political rights?

4. Practice approach to citizenship Critical literature: Citizenship is NOT only a set of formal rights and status or de jure legal citizenship. It is also a ‘set of practices’: 1) De facto fulfillment of rights for the diverse members of the nation-state 2) Actual forms of identification, attitude and conduct prescribed de facto as the ideal citizen

5. Practice approach to citizenship De facto group-differentiated citizenship: some groups are systematically excluded despite equal legal status. Modern individualist concept of citizenship places particularistic forms of identification and cultural modes of being as inferior to national belonging. Solution? – De jure group-based/multicultural citizenship that horizontally accommodates multiple forms of identification and collective claims to rights? – Individual citizenship, but increase de facto equality.

6. Relevance for Myanmar? Long history of de facto group-differentiated citizenship: ‘Burmanisation’ and a politics of national unity, despite de jure (cultural) recognition of different ethnic nationalities. EAO struggle legitimized as protection of ethnic minorities and their de facto rights. Military strategies legitimized as struggle against disunity => Reinforcement of ethnic identities Legally today: cultural group-rights (albeit still somewhat hierarchy), weak political group-rights

7. Integration options Security and Justice sector Political parties Local government and civil service Employment and formalization of businesses Civil society organizations Central: beyond high, leadership level integration. Translate national agreement into local level arrangements that also promote de facto citizenship.

8. Security and Justice Sector Not only military: broader security sector reform (SSR), including police and judiciary Integrate existing local level dispute resolution mechanisms and EAO systems with SSR: what role for ex-combatants with existing skills? Community policing or Peace Councils as a means of reconciliation and to give ex-combatants a sense of community worth and occupation. Wider recognition: To what extent do EAO justice systems accommodate local justice perceptions?

9. Security and Justice Sector: citizenship Recognition of local disputing forums/courts can support de facto access to justice and security: familiarity, access, time/cost. Cultural rights: local justice perceptions are not always the same as state legal norms. Today only family law matters recognized. Ignoring EAO systems can undermine sustainable peace: work constructively with them and include training and reform of critical practices. Broadly inclusive local dialogue on customary law and dispute resolution practices.

10. Political Party integration 2 options => civilian rather than armed representatives of ethnic groups – EAO transform into political parties – EAO members join existing political parties Interviews: general acceptance of political integration, but also skepticism. EAOs loosing legitimacy as armed political negotiators (parallel to parliamentarian politics)

11. Political Party integration EAOs as political parties: – Demilitarization and capacity building – Competition with other ethnic parties – who are the true or most legitimate representatives? How strong are the EAO constituencies today? – Multiple representatives can enhance ethnic rights but also reduce national and state level clout: need for ethnic political party alliances – Competitive electoral representation is no guarantee for political voice and power to EAOs – could it be combined with particular positions for EAOs? Will this be accepted by others? Do EAOs hold a privileged position as ethnic group representatives?

12. Political Party integration EAO members join existing political parties: Already existing examples of self-integration Ethnic political parties are reluctant to speak about their relation to EAOs, but many personal relationships and willingness to ‘adopt’ EAO members. Will lower ranks benefit from political integration (of EAOs being in political opposition)? Need for other integration options. – Political integration: group- or individual-based citizenship in ethnic politics?

13. Civil service and local government Translate national level political settlements into local governance power-sharing: align de facto governance with governance reform. Job creation: build on existing skills and experiences (admin., health, education etc.) of EAO members Promote reconciliation and local (ethnic) ownership (versus civil servants from outside)

14. Civil service and local government Relevance for citizenship? Enhance service delivery when building on existing capacities Inclusion of ethnic minorities in local government can enhance familiarity and reduce fear of discrimination. Careful assessment of variety of de facto governance arrangements and local power dynamics so that ex- combatants do not discriminate in new ways(e.g. Indonesia). Broad inclusion needed: inclusion of ex-combatants to avoid power conflicts, but avoid special privileges.

15. Economic integration Combine ex-combatant job-creation and income generation with joint community development Employer incentives to hire ex-combatants Worry in Karen and Mon states that foreigners are given jobs and take businesses: align integration with economic rights of ethnic citizens (+ land/resources) EAO existing economic activities formalized and regulated. Can be a real asset. But to what extent do these support economic rights of ethnic citizens? And how much do they serve personal interests or survival of EAOs?

16. Civil Society Organisations CSOs: Competition and alliances with EAOs Examples already of ‘self-integration’ into development or cultural CSOs. Transitional phase service providers to remote and EAO controlled areas, supporting ethnic citizens’ rights. Ex-combatants can be an asset as they have good contacts and alliances. Competition for resources and representation cannot be ruled out

17. Conclusion Approach EAO skills/experiences as assets rather than alone as obstacles to peace and development Combine different integration options with efforts to enhance ethnic groups’ rights at local and national levels. Integration raises difficult questions of political representation of ethnic groups What kind of citizenship is envisioned for a federal solution: – Multicultural group-based with political accommodation or individual-based with only cultural recognition? – Geographical markers? – New forms of discrimination?