2. Chapter 2: The variation problem 1: Inter-speaker variation J. Jenkins The phonology of English as an international language Presented by: Carrie Newdall

3. What is inter-speaker variation? Massive deviations from the “correct” L1 standard where L2 learners use a variation of English especially in pronunciation. Variation = negative connotations “ Human nature….seems to favor conformity to standards….superiorority of language adheres to established linguistic norms.”(p.25)

4. Two concepts of International uses of English 1.Acceptable L2 inter-speaker variation – This involves transfer from L1 for production. – Noticeable phonological differences (accents can form stereotypes). – L2 speaker is aware of the inter-speaker variation. 2.Beneficial intra-speaker variation L2 speakers vary pronunciation and are aware of this.

5. Is there discrimination? There are English norms emerging for International English. Investigations on commonalities among L2 English varieties. Local varieties in Kenya want to be seen as norm-setting rather than norm-dependent. Should English teachers follow norm- dependent rules regarding pronunciation?

6. ESL varieties and the interlanguage controversy Is there a distinction between EFL and ESL? Some researchers believe that ESL varieties are actually “non-native varieties of English”. Other researchers state that interlanguage should be regarded as “developing systems of language learners”.

7. Is International English becoming fossilized? Some researchers hypothesize that if there are no set norms for interlanguage then the emergence of new dialects for English will become the norm and will lead to fossilization. Indian English (from India) is seen to some as a fossilized English. Kachru (1993)argued that “If American English developed as an International language among a large population of immigrants…does that mean it is a fossilized IL?”

8. Inter-speaker segmental variation and its effects L2 speakers need to form new habits in sound production. L2 speakers cope well with articulation when they can take the time and focus on articulation otherwise L2 speakers will revert back to the L1 habits. Sounds that are phonetically different from the L1 are the hardest to produce because the articulators are used in different ways.

9. Inter-speaker segmental variation and its effects In order to master an L2 sound the learner has to acquire both the physiological knowledge regarding articulation and understand its place in the new phonological system. Difficulties include: – New sounds that are not in the L1 – Learners need to have the ability to recognize the complex overlaps between the L1 and L2 systems – Phonemes from L1 may become allophones in L2

10. Phonological and phonetic deviations 1.Sound substitution and conflation a.Substitution (Japanese /l/ for /r/) b.Conflation ( both the /θ/ and /s/ pronounced /s/) 2.Consonant deletion or elision a.Omission of the sound, for example: the /r/ in price by Taiwanese L2 speakers is usually omitted. A sound may also be replaced by a glottal stop /ʔ/ as in /dʌʔ/ “duck” by Chinese L2 learners.

11. Phonological and phonetic deviations 3.Addition a. Epenthesis- an intrusive sound placed between two other sounds to facilitate a “difficult” articulation. /esprayt°/ b. Paragoge- an addition of a sound to the end of a word. Korean L2 speakers pronounce the word luggage as[lʌgidʒi].

12. Syllable simplification, consonant deletion, and sound addition Speakers of CV languages tend to select one of two ways to simplify syllables of non-CV languages. 1.Through consonant deletion ( with or without inserting a glottal stop to replace an elided consonant. * Consonant deletion causes the highest rate of misperception and unintelligibility for L2 learners. 2.By adding an epenthesis or paragoge. * Epenthesis leads to the highest rate of perception and seems to increase intelligibility.

13. Inter-speaker suprasegmental variation and its effects English word stress is highly rule governed – It’s hard for L2 learners to acquire the rules – Incorrect word stress affects both understandability and intelligibility of the speaker English uses greater vowel duration than the majority of L1’s (they use pitch and loudness) – Can lead to intelligibility problems

14. Inter-speaker suprasegmental variation and its effects The nucleus is the most prominent syllable in any group of words in English and nuclear placement by the L2 speaker presents the greatest suprasegmental threat to speaker intelligibility. Failure to divide speech stream into units can also result in grammatical ambiguity or misinterpretation.

15. Some examples of suprasegmental variation One example the book provided was the question “Do you waste your time alone?” but alone was pronounced /'elɔn/, with the stress on the first syllable. Another example was the statement “My husband drinks a lot of BEER” or another version is “ My HUSband drinks a lot of beer.” By changing the nucleus the meaning is changed completely.

16. Conclusion Inter-speaker variation is an extremely complicated issue which needs to be acknowledged by L2 educators and researchers. The more second language English speakers there are in the world the more complex this issue will become.