1. Organizational Theory Chapter 5 Charles R. Swanson, Leonard Territo, and Robert W. Taylor Police Administration: Structures, Processes, and Behavior (Eighth Edition)

2. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Organizational theory draws on many disciplines. It is the basic rationale for organizations. Makes organizations more understandable Reveals how authority and decision making are organized and distributed Explains why some police departments are less or more open to change and innovation Makes assumptions about followers Incorporates notions about the environments that the police department faces and how these can impinge on the department Provides an essential tool for leaders in deciding how the work will be processed and the structure and relationship of the work units needed to accomplish it Organizational Theory

3. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Cui bono Typology Mutual Benefit Associations Business Concerns Service Orgs. Commonweal Orgs.

4. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Mutual benefit associations: Members Business Concerns: Owners Service Organizations: Clients Commonweal Organizations: Citizenry Into which category do law enforcement agencies fall?

5. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Traditional Organizational Theory

6. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Scientific Management Frederick W. Taylor-the father of scientific management “One best way” to do work A theory of motivation in its belief that employees will be guided in their actions by what is in their economic self-interest Focus on labor, not management Productivity & motivation –Natural Soldiering –Systematic Soldiering

7. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Focused on labor, not management Twin problem: Productivity & Motivation Natural soldiering: Employees have an inclination not to push themselves Systematic soldiering: Workers don’t want to produce so much as to see their quotas raised or other workers thrown out of their jobs. Try to find the most physically and time efficient way to sequence tasks and use extensive controls to supervise.

8. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved The Bureaucratic Model Max Weber is the father of modern sociology Characteristics of Weber’s model: 1.The organization of offices follows the principle of hierarchy 2.There is a right of appeal and of statement of grievances from the lower to the higher offices 3. Specified areas of competence (a division of labor exists) 4. Official duties are bound by a system of rational rules (policies and procedures) 5. Administrative acts, decisions, and rules are recorded in writing 6. The authority associated with a position is the property of the office or job and not of the occupant of the position 7. Employees are appointed on the basis of qualifications – specialized training is necessary 8. Organizational members do not own it

9. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Hierarchy and Job Specialization in a Bureaucracy

10. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Police as Street-Level Bureaucrats “State Agents” Follow all laws and policies “Citizen Agents” Bend or ignore some laws and policies

11. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Sought to identify generic/universal methods of administration Supervise no more than 5-6 subordinates Gulick’s POSDCRB Administrative Theory

12. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved POSDCRB

13. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved “Man as machine” orientation Criticisms by Bennis –Does not allow for personal growth –Compels conformity –Does not account for informal organization –System of control outdated –No adequate judicial process –No process to resolve differences or conflicts –Communication cut off due to tall hierarchy –Full human resources not utilized Criticisms of Traditional Theory

14. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Elton Mayo: Hawthorne Studies “Hawthorne Effect” –People being studied behave differently because they like the attention they get Developed in reaction to the mechanistic orientation of traditional organizational theory (viewed as neglecting the human element) The Human Relations School rests on the research of Elton Mayo The Hawthorne Studies viewed organizations as social systems Human Relations School

15. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Productivity is set by social norms, not by physiological capacities Workers often react as group members rather than individuals Group incentives can become more important than individual incentives Leadership has an important role in setting and enforcing group norms There is a difference between formal and informal leadership Hawthorne effect

16. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Work should be satisfying and help to motivate workers Organizations must pay attention to the needs of workers Work should not be something people endure just to make a living Shares the human relations school’s distaste for traditional organizational theory Organizations must pay attention to the needs of workers on the job AND off the job! Organizational Humanism

17. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy

18. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Designed to explain individual motivation Hierarchical Individuals must satisfy lower-level needs to move up the hierarchy Can be reversed Allows for compatibility of individuals and organizational goals

19. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y Theory XTheory Y vs.

20. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved What assumptions do each theory make about humans? Theory X assumes that humans: Have an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible Must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives Prefer to be directed, avoid responsibility, have relatively little ambition, and want security above all Theory Y assumes that humans’: Mental and physical effort for work is as natural as play Commitment to objectives is tied to incentives Learn to accept responsibility and have a high creative capacity Potential is only partially realized Theory X is subsumed into traditional organizational theory. Which theory dominates the mindset of most police organizations? Two theories about how managers view workers

21. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Herzberg: Motivation-Hygiene Theory Two sets of variables –Hygiene (maintenance) factors: relate to work environment –Motivators: relate to work itself Police managers have more control over motivators but can influence hygiene factors

22. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Warren Bennis A change management process –Attempts to take the uncertainty out of change Used to reform employee work attitudes and values Incorporates changes the organization wants to make Involves employee surveys Training of employees in changes being instituted Example: Police department wants to implement COP or ILP Organizational Development

23. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Assumes complete rationality, optimizing performances, predictability, internal efficiency, and certainty All behavior is believed to be functional All outcomes are believed to be predictable and certain The closed organization can ignore changes in the larger environment Political, technological, economic, etc. Sees little need for interaction with its environment Organizations as Closed Systems

24. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Organizations as Open Systems

25. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Interdependence Police unions Partners Events Legal framework Governing body Special interest groups/stakeholders Technology Other departments

26. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Two Environmental Theories Environmental Contingency Theory Resource Dependency Theory Leaders must “read the environment” Decide what type of structure is the “best fit” with the environment being faced All agencies are dependent on larger environment for their resources Identify their standing compared to other agencies competing for resources

27. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Inadequate or non-existent plans Inadequate or non-existent plans Insufficient or ineffective resources Insufficient or ineffective resources Cosmology Chaos Theory Information overload (politicians, media, etc) Information overload (politicians, media, etc) Normal services not possible Normal services not possible Widespread fear and uncertainty Widespread fear and uncertainty Initial lack of information Initial lack of information Bifurcation

28. Police Administration (8 th Edition) Swanson, Territo, and Taylor © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved In organizational theory, chaos is a state of non- equilibrium Precipitated by a crisis which disrupts everyday predictability (i.e. Hurricane Katrina, 9/11 attacks) The usual order of things is replaced at some level by a mix of factors (above) –Cosmology: unfamiliar problems are more complex than we can imagine –Bifurcation: when chaos overwhelms normal conditions of the agency Bad decisions may increase the level of chaos –Produce unintended consequences Innovative efforts and alliances are needed to restore stability