1. Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation

2. This chapter focuses on conflict avoidance and resolution strategies that can be used to reconcile groups that have been engaged in various forms of conflicts Reconciliation: “mutual acceptance by groups each other” reconciliation after mass violence and killing is very difficult The essence of reconciliation is a changed psychological orientation toward the other

3. Reconciliation and forgiveness are interrelated Forgiveness involve the restoration of positive relationship between perpetrator and victim wherein negative emotions toward the perpetrator are replaced with positive emotions and pro-social behavior

4. Victims, perpetrators, and bystanders must be involved in the reconciliation process Many victims suffer from the chronic effect of trauma (anxiety, insomnia, nightmare, etc.) and post-traumatic stress disorder Being part of the reconciliation, having strong institutional support to make victim to feel safe is crucial Perpetrators often do not feel guilty, often continue to see their victims through negative, dehumanizing stereotypes that le them to commit the violence in the first place. Perpetrator of violence also suffer can experience trauma, and suffer similar ill-effects Bystanders often turn away fro victims, refusing to acknowledge what happened and distancing themselves from those who suffered

5. In post-conflictual situations, punishment for crimes against humanity has always been part of the reconciliation process The trials of the Nazi leadership, the identification of Bosnian Serbs guilt mass murder, the trials of Rwanda’s killers, punishment by international community and by victims of the violence

6. Punishment also is supposed to act as a deterrent to others who would commit such acts But, at some point punishment stops, and conflict resolution and reconciliation require returning to the source of the conflict to begin with

7. Conflict arises in societies because basic human needs are not being met, whether those needs are physical and objective, or psychological and subjective What can be done to promote reconciliation afterward? A crucial first step in conflict resolution in the aftermath of violence is for people to feel safe Once the fighting has stopped, people still have highly charged emotions about other groups, they will fear that their own safety is still in jeopardy After the fighting has stopped individuals and groups do not simply forgive and move on Peace-building and reconstructing a new peaceful society is very difficult The healing process can be long and tenuous Leaders who have such skills are crucial to this effort, enabling them to build coalitions and calm fears

8. War Tribunals Reconciliation is necessary to prevent violence from becoming cyclical, with one group seeking violent revenge against another In addition to punishment, reconciliation requires recognition of the humanity of one another, forgiveness, and the reestablishment of trust

9. Methods aftermath of conflict to promote resolution and reconciliation Trials, at least some of the perpetrators are put on trial for crimes against humanity (after WWII, in 1993 and 1994, the UN established war crime tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda, Slobodan Milosevic) International Criminal Court established by the UN in 2002. The court opened up investigations into the situations in Northern Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, and Darfur, Sudan.

10. War crimes trials have a criticisms: the Nuremberg Trials after WWII being little more than vengeance by victors of WWII. The laws, procedures, and judges were selected by allies Individuals should not be held accountable for actions conducted by a state government War crimes trials being held today are less susceptible to criticism that the laws and procedures are arbitrary Procedures fro trials are also established by the International Court The ongoing war crimes trials only seek to indict and try the commanders who gave order, not those actually committed the violence and this give little satisfaction to victims families’

11. In addition to international trials, individual governments have held trials to bring to justice people who participate in atrocities and state terrors (e.g. Argentina, Chile, and Brazil) Trials will never be sufficient to punish everyone in every case, particularly in situations like Rwanda, where so many people were involved in the slaughter of Tutsis Trials do not produce reconciliation or forgiveness. To achieve this people must admit their wrong doings but often during trials people will not do so (for ex: Slobodan Milosevic and Saddam Hussein both claimed that were innocent of any crimes)

12. Dialogue and truth and reconciliation commissions Two different techniques for recovering from violence: Dialogue Truth and reconciliation commissions

13. Dialogue: is a process by which individuals engage with each other in an open forum in order to speak about their side of the story and to also hear the side of others. Can be used to promote understanding between racial groups 4 phases of dialogue in moving participants through a natural process from sharing individual experience to committing to collective action 1-first phase set the tone and explores the question “Who are we?” through the sharing of personal stories 2- second phase help participants understand “Where are we?” through a deeper exploration of personal and shared history in the community 3-during the third phase, participants develop a vision for the community, in response to the question “Where do we want to be?” 4- participant answer the question “What will we do as individuals and with other to make a difference?” Often they discover shared interest and start working together on specific projects

14. Truth and reconciliation commissions are designed to reveal the truths of political violence, to let the revelation of truth to allow the victims or their survivors to grieve, and to achieve some measure of reconciliation and forgiveness Truth commissions gather evidence, determine accountability, and often recommend policies for the treatment of victims and perpetrators trials are aimed punishing the perpetrators of crimes but prime concern of the truth commission approach is with the victims

15. Truth commissions are often used in situations in which the government replacing the power holders who committed the acts of violence is not powerful or stable enough to challenge all of the agents. (For example: in Argentina, the new civilian government could not prosecute all of the military officers responsible for the repression) Another reasons for the use of the truth and reconciliation commissions is that often the number of people involved in one way or another with the commission of violence is so great that the prosecutorial approach would only serve to make impossible both reconciliation and the construction of a working political and social system

16. Reconciliation is usually thought to occur when there is a willingness to forgive, to tolerate one another, and to live together in harmony in the future

17. Integration strategies Integration without discrimination is really the only practical solution in many cases, because separation is not an option 2 type of integration strategies: shared sovereignty and utilitarian Central feature of conflicts is fear The development of security dilemma wherein different identity groups (ethnic, racial, and national) fear that they will lose out in competition for power and justice, the fear destruction of their group as an identity group, or even fear for their very existence integration strategies can be developed to resolve conflicts, successful integration strategies requires number of political and psychological components.

18. Psychologically, (1) provide different identity groups in a polity with options for social mobility and social creativity, can move toward the development of a common third identity while not threatening the existence of the primary identity Integration strategies need to establish an environment in which groups feel secure and their identities are not threatened Effort to promote multiculturalism, to recognize cultural and racial differences and to celebrate those differences as equally valuable (2) second psychological element involves a need to address stereotypes and social distance among groups. Contact hypothesis: which proposed increasing inter-group contact, and exposing people to the complexity of group members and thereby providing information that breaks down stereotypes

19. Political aspects of integration strategies would have to meet the psychological requirements Mechanisms used for this part: supplying multiple channels for acquiring power, so that no group dominates limited channels, promoting intragroup rather than intergroup conflict, policies that promote intergroup cooperation, encourage cross-group alignments based on interest rate than on group identity

20. Shared sovereignty strategies Some degree of self-rule and regional autonomy, confederation of federation, form of shared homeland it accommodates, a group’s desire to maintain its integrity as an identity group and the primacy of that identity for group members Incorporating some form of autonomy or self-rule designed to reduce threat perceptions Does not have capability necessary to achieve independence autonomy can set into motion a gradually intensifying identification with the broader national community

21. This form of integration strategies address the important political issues of providing groups with increased capability and decision making power in their region or state with competitive power in the broader country government Institutional arrangements can accommodate identity needs of groups particularly when a group’s identity is threatened Should explicitly address intergroup perspectives

22. Utilitarian integration strategies: The institutional options of independence or autonomy are not available when the groups are geographically intermingled across a country or minorities are low in power and capabilities The essential feature of this strategy is to satisfy the population’s needs, and this requires moving any obstacles to equality of access to important political positions in the country Unimpeded access to state educational institutions and the elimination of any state-sponsored social discrimination but develops varies with the social distances between groups, greater the distance harder and slower integration will be. Memories of historical relationship such as slavery, and the depth of institutional discrimination, also affects the speed of integration

23. Difficulties in this type of integration strategy is changing traditional perception of groups that have been regarded as inferior The task is complicated when the self-imagery within the subordinate minority is also negative

24. Key aspect of the utilitarian strategy: attaching qualified individuals in the minority community into positions that exceed their expectations and the majority’s Affirmative action programs: people from minority groups come to be increasingly associated with high achievement

25. 2 nd Assignment 1 Case (situations and cases) - International Criminal Court https://www.icc- cpi.int/en_menus/icc/situations%20and%20cases /Pages/situations%20and%20cases.aspx OR 1 Case- Truth and reconciliation commissions Argentina, Chile, Rwanda, Peru, South Africa