1. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Psychology Third Edition Chapter 7 Cognition

2. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 2) 7.1Define cognition and explain how mental images and concepts are involved in the process of thinking. 7.2Describe some methods people use to solve problems and make decisions. 7.3Identify three common barriers to successful problem solving. 7.4Define creativity and identify some characteristics of divergent thinking. 7.5Compare and contrast different theories on the nature of intelligence. 7.6Compare and contrast some methods of measuring intelligence and identify ways to evaluate the quality of a test.

3. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (2 of 2) 7.7Define intellectual disability, giftedness, and emotional intelligence. 7.8Evaluate the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intelligence. 7.9Define language and identify its different elements and structure. 7.10Evaluate whether or not language influences how people think. 7.11Summarize the research on the ability of animals to communicate and use language. 7.12Identify some methods for improving your thinking.

4. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thinking and Mental Images Learning Objective 7.1: Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking Thinking (cognition): mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information –Processing includes organizing, understanding, and communicating information to others. Mental images: mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality

5. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 7.1: Kosslyn’s Fictional Island

6. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Concepts (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.1: Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking Concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities Formal concepts: concepts that are defined by specific rules or features Natural concepts: concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world –A platypus is a “fuzzy” natural concept (a mammal that lays eggs and has bird-like webbed feet)

7. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Concepts (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.1: Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking Prototype: a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept –Prototypes develop according to the exposure a person has to objects in that category.

8. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problem Solving (1 of 5) Learning Objective 7.2: Solving Problems and Making Decisions Problem solving: occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways Decision making: identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives

9. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problem Solving (2 of 5) Learning Objective 7.2: Solving Problems and Making Decisions Trial and error (mechanical solution): problem- solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found Algorithms: very specific, step by step procedures for solving certain types of problems –Will always result in a correct solution if one exists to be found  Example, mathematical formulas

10. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problem Solving (3 of 5) Learning Objective 7.2: Solving Problems and Making Decisions Heuristic: educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem; also known as a “rule of thumb” –Representative heuristic: assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category

11. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problem Solving (4 of 5) Learning Objective 7.2: Solving Problems and Making Decisions Heuristics (continued) –Availability heuristic: estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is to think of related examples –Working backward from the goal is a useful heuristic. –Break a goal down into subgoals, so that as each subgoal is achieved, the final solution is that much closer.

12. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problem Solving (5 of 5) Learning Objective 7.2: Solving Problems and Making Decisions Insight: sudden perception of a solution to a problem –“Aha!” moment –The problem may be recognized as similar to another, previously solved problem, for example.

13. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problem-Solving Barriers (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.3: Barriers to Problem Solving Functional fixedness: a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions Mental set: the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past

14. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problem-Solving Barriers (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.3: Barriers to Problem Solving Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs

15. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 7.2: The String Problem

16. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 7.2 (continued): Solution to the String Problem

17. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 7.3: The Dot Problem

18. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 7.3 (continued): Solution to the Dot Problem

19. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Creativity (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.4: Creativity and Divergent Thinking Creativity: the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways

20. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Creativity (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.4: Creativity and Divergent Thinking Creativity (continued) –Convergent thinking: a problem is seen as having only one answer; all lines of thinking will eventually lead to (converge on a single answer, using previous knowledge and logic) –Divergent thinking: a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (a kind of creativity)

21. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.1: Stimulating Divergent Thinking Brainstorming Generate as many ideas as possible in a short period of time, without judging each idea's merits until all ideas are recorded. Keeping a Journal Carry a journal to write down ideas as they occur or a recorder to capture those same ideas and thoughts. Freewriting Write down or record everything that comes to mind about a topic without revising or proofreading until all of the information is written or recorded in some way. Organize it later. Mind or Subject Mapping Start with a central idea and draw a "map" with lines from the center to other related ideas, forming a visual representation of the concepts and their connections.

22. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Intelligence Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories Intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems

23. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theories of Intelligence (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories Spearman’s Theory –G factor: the ability to reason and solve problems; general intelligence –S factor: the ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence

24. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theories of Intelligence (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Table 7.2 Gardner's Nine Intelligences TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE DESCRIPTIONSAMPLE OCCUPATION Verbal/linguistic Ability to use languageWriters, speakers MusicalAbility to compose and/or perform music Musicians, even those who do not read musical notes but can perform and compose Logical/mathematicalAbility to think logically and to solve mathematical problemsScientists, engineers Visual/spatialAbility to understand how objects are oriented in spacePilots, astronauts, artists, navigators MovementAbility to control one's body motionsDancers, athletes InterpersonalSensitivity to others and understanding motivation of othersPsychologists, managers IntrapersonalUnderstanding of one's emotions and how they guide actionsVarious people-oriented careers NaturalistAbility to recognize the patterns found in nature Farmers, landscapers, biologists, botanists Existentialist (a candidate intelligence) Ability to see the "big picture" of the human world by asking questions about life, death, and the ultimate reality of human existence Various careers, philosophical thinkers

25. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Gardner’s Theory (1 of 4) Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Movement

26. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Gardner’s Theory (2 of 4) Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Albert Einstein Logical/Mathematical

27. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Gardner’s Theory (3 of 4) Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Visual/Spatial

28. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Gardner’s Theory (4 of 4) Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Musical

29. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theories of Intelligence (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence posits that there are three kinds of intelligences. 1.Analytical 2.Creative 3.Practical

30. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theories of Intelligence (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.5: Intelligence Theories Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (continued) –Analytical intelligence: the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving –Creative intelligence: the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems –Practical intelligence: the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful; “street smarts”

31. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IQ Tests (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence Intelligence quotient (I Q): a number representing a measure of intelligence; results from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age are then multiplied by 100 –Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales yield an I Q score. –Allows testers to compare intelligence levels of people from different age groups

32. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.3: Paraphrased Sample Items From the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test AGE*TYPE OF ITEMPARAPHRASED SAMPLE ITEM 2Board with three differently shaped holes Child can place correct shape into matching hole on board. 4Building block bridgeChild can build a simple bridge out of blocks after being shown a model. 7SimilaritiesChild can answer such questions as "In what way are a ship and a car alike?" 9Digit reversalChild can repeat four digits backward. Average adultVocabularyChild can define 20 words from a list. *Age at which item typically is successfully completed. Source: Roid, G. H. (2003).

33. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IQ Tests (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal score and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence.

34. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.4: Stimulating Divergent Thinking SIMULATED SAMPLE TEST ITEMS Verbal Comprehension Index Blank SimilaritiesIn what way are a circle and a triangle alike? In what way are a saw and a hammer alike? Vocabulary What is a hippopotamus? What does "resemble" mean? Information What is steam made of? What is pepper? Who wrote Tom Sawyef? Perceptual Reasoning Index Blank Block DesignAfter looking at a pattern or design, try to arrange small cubes in the same pattern. Matrix Reasoning After looking at an incomplete matrix pattern or series, select an option that completes the matrix or series. Visual Puzzles Look at a completed puzzle and select three components from a set of options that would re-create the puzzle, all within a specified time limit.

35. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Development of IQ Tests Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence Reliability: the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people Validity: the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure

36. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Unreliable and Invalid (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence

37. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Unreliable and Invalid (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence

38. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reliable but Invalid (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence

39. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reliable but Invalid (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence

40. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reliable and Valid (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence

41. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reliable and Valid (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence

42. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Development of IQ Tests (1 of 3) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence Standardization: the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed –Norms: scores from the standardization group –Most intelligence tests follow a normal curve.

43. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 7.4: The Normal Curve

44. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Development of IQ Tests (2 of 3) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence Deviation I Q scores: a measure of intelligence; assumes that I Q is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15 –An IQ of 130 is 2 standard deviations above the mean. –An IQ of 70 is 2 standard deviations below the mean.

45. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Development of IQ Tests (3 of 3) Learning Objective 7.6: Measuring Intelligence Cultural Bias –Culture-free tests Usefulness of I Q Tests –I Q tests are generally valid for predicting academic success and job performance. –Neuropsychology  Head injury, learning disabilities, neuropsychological disorders

46. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Intellectual Disability (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.7: Intellectual Disability, Giftedness, and EI Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder): a person exhibits deficits in mental ability and adaptive behavior –I Q falls below 70 –Adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age. –Formerly known as mental retardation or developmental delay

47. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Intellectual Disability (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.7: Intellectual Disability, Giftedness, and EI Intellectual disability can vary from mild to profound. Causes of developmental delay include deprived environments as well as chromosome and genetic disorders, alcohol, dietary deficiencies, and toxins in the environments.

48. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Giftedness (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.7: Intellectual Disability, Giftedness, and EI Gifted: the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an I Q of 130 or above Does giftedness guarantee success?

49. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Giftedness (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.7: Intellectual Disability, Giftedness, and EI Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults, for the most part. –Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity, because he became too involved in the lives of his “Termites,” even to the point of interfering on their behalf.

50. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emotional Intelligence Learning Objective 7.7: Intellectual Disability, Giftedness, and EI Emotional intelligence: awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions, as well as the ability to be self-motivated, to feel what others feel, and to be socially skilled –Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life

51. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence Learning Objective 7.8: The Influence of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence Stronger correlations are found between I Q scores as genetic relatedness increases. Heritability of I Q is estimated at 0.50. Flynn effect: I Q scores are steadily increasing over time in modernized countries The Bell Curve: a book that made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence –Stereotype threat

52. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 7.5: Correlations Between I Q Scores of Persons with Various Relationships

53. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 7.5 (continued): Correlations Between I Q Scores of Persons with Various Relationships

54. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Language Learning Objective 7.9: Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language Language: a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others

55. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Elements and Structure of Language (1 of 2) Learning Objective 7.9: Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language Grammar: the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language Phonemes: the basic units of sound in a language Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning within a language

56. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Elements and Structure of Language (2 of 2) Learning Objective 7.9: Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language Syntax: the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences Semantics: rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences Pragmatics: aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social niceties of language

57. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Language and Cognition Learning Objective 7.10: How Language Influences Thought Linguistic relativity hypothesis: the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language Cognitive universalism: theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language

58. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Animal Studies in Language Learning Objective 7.11: Animals’ Ability to Communicate Studies have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas. Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language.

59. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ways to Improve Thinking Learning Objective 7.12: Ways to Improve Thinking Mental activities that require creativity and the use of memory abilities can help keep the brain fit. –Crossword puzzles –Reading books