1. Indian Policy, 1945-1975

2. Reservations in U.S.

3. Background  Government to Government Relationships  Treaties  Assimilation  Boarding Schools  Dawes Allotment Act

4. Indian New Deal, 1933-1941  Stopped allotment  Reorganized Indian Governments  Education  Economic Dev  Language and cultures  Arts and Crafts

5. World War Two  Over 25,000  All branches of military  Volunteerism  Women and men  Integrated units  Stereotypes  Code Talkers

6. Post War Legacy  Multi-tribal  White world (racism & “the system”)  Common problems  Consciousness  Honor and service  Protect community and nation  Education, voting rights, equality

7. National Congress of American Indians  1944 Denver, CO  Collective political action  Community support  Voting rights, legal aid, education, health, sovereignty, political lobbying, land rights

8. “Termination Era” 1945-1965  General philosophy in contrast to New Deal era. Termination intended to end the relationship between tribal governments & the federal government  Termination era consisted of: Sovereignty Old land claims Relocation Assimilation

9. Post War Political Context  Conservative Congress  Cut federal spending on social programs  Demilitarization  Cold War  Anti-diversity  Rhetoric from Civil Rights Movement  “Rural ghettos,” “segregation,” “liberate Indians”

10. Indian Claims Commission  1946-78  Land claims from 1800s  Pay back tribes  End financial obligations  “Get out of the Indian Business”  $800 million

11. Relocation Programs -1951: Branch of Placement & Relocation -Employment, training, bus tickets, housing -Chicago, L.A., Denver, Dallas, Salt Lake -1960: 30% in urban areas -Poverty and racism

12. Termination Program, 1953-60s  Dissolve reservations as sovereign places  Integrated lands into county and state jurisdiction  Land allotted to individuals  Private property, taxable  Erase the basis for communal landholdings, erase identity

13. Significance  Termination legislation targeted over 100 tribes  Terminated dozens  Poverty and land loss  Increased the importance of NCAI  Galvanized tribes to fight against the federal government policies

14. Reactions of Tribes  American Indian Chicago Conference 1961 multi-tribal gathering (67 tribes) University of Chicago  National Indian Youth Council, 1961 “Declaration of Indian Purpose”  Fishing Rights Treaties “Sit-Ins” Boldt Decision

15. Kennedy and Johnson, 1961-68  Great Society  Area Redevelopment Act (1961)  Community Action Projects (1963)  Stewart Udall (Int. Sec.)  Office of Economic Opportunity (1964)  Medicare, Medicaid, W.I.C. Head Start

16. Shifts in Policy Robert Bennett CIA  Vine Deloria, Jr.  National Council on Indian Opportunity Review policies Rec changes  Congress rejected termination

17. Indian Civil Rights Act 1968  Congressionally ended termination  Bill of Rights and Constitution applicable on reservations  Protected individual rights  Undermined tribal sovereignty in regard to relationships between tribal governments and tribal citizens

18. “Militant” Indian Activism  Occupation of Alcatraz Island, 1969-1971  Taos, Blue Lake, New Mexico  American Indian Movement  Trail of Broken Treaties, 1972  Occupation of BIA Building, 1972  Standoff at Wounded Knee, 1973

19. Images from the Era

20. Significance of Activism  Consciousness  Strategies of organization  Cooperation  National media awareness  Government accountability  Treaties and sovereignty

21. New Policies  Menominee Restoration Act, 1973 (Ada Deer) Overturned termination legislation for tribe  Indian Ed & Self- Determination Act, 1975 Bypass the BIA Direct contracting Control over education, health care, economics

22. Conclusions  Growing influence of federally recognized tribes  Defeat of termination and related policies  Preservation of land  Semi-sovereign governments  Political consciousness  Moderate responses from feds  Permanent presence in politics