1. Non Meat Ingredients for Cured Meat Han Sul Yang

2. Importance Variety (controlled)-enhance appearance Distinctiveness Combination may create unique effects Specific functions Improve quality and reduce costs

3. Rationale for non-meat ingredient use Control costs Extend product shelf-life - Reduce pathogen presence and growth Enhance flavor, juiciness and texture - Acidification for flavor, preservation and tenderization Retard lipid and color oxidation - Reduce or replace fat Meat nutrient specifications

4. 1. Water (Ice) Predominate component (60-70%) plus added water Important functional ingredient 1) Functions Solvent for salts, curing compounds, proteins other ingredients Brine strength - Influences protein extraction - Establishes microbial control

5. salt Brine strength = salt + water 2.5 2.5 + 58 = = 4.13% Microbial Protein extraction - Improved solubility - Longer chopping, mixing time Phase conversion of ice to water is especially effective - 19 ×’s as much energy absorbed 2) Temperature control

6. 10-20% added water Critical to emulsion batters and binding of meat pieces Important to heat-set protein gelation Influences yields 3) Protein solubility Tenderness, mouth feel Compensation for reduced fat 4) Texture (eating quality contributions)

7. Low-fat, high added water formulations are excellent examples of the influence of water as a non-meat ingredient AND of the need to understand interactions between meat and non-meat ingredients BECAUSE …..

8. Texture/cost - solution: added water Purge - solution: water-binders Flavor - solution: flavoring agents Shelf-life - solution: microbial inhibitors 5) Problems associated with reduced-fat formulations Hard water - Metals, nitrate, contaminates may induce off flavors, color problems - May clog spray/injection nozzles - Can affect performance of cleaning compounds and detergents 6) Concerns for water sources

9. Soft water Hard water Below about 4 grains About 10 grains mineral content (175 ppm) (70 ppm) 4-7 grains is Over 10 grains is moderately hard very hard water (70-120 ppm) (200+ ppm) Should test water from different outlets at least once a year. Sample one outlet farthest incoming line. Hard water causes difficulty in dissolving some ingredients

10. Hard water No cross contamination in water lines - Know plant plumbing - Confirm separation of incoming water from waste water/sewage Back flow prevention on lines Icemaker sanitation - Change filters Avoid iron pipers (old facilities) and copper water lines Beware of deaden water lines Nitrate - More likely in well water 7) Concerns for water

11. 2. Salt (NaCl) Extremely fundamental ingredient ?? - Salt soluble proteins determine many qualities ▪ Texture water and fat binding, adhesion ▪ 2-3% NaCl: sequence in mixing and chopping becomes important 1) Functions Solvent for salts, curing compounds, proteins other ingredients Brine strength - Influences protein extraction - Establishes microbial control

12. Preservative (Cl - is bacteriostatic) - “Floral inversion” (gram ‘-’ to gram ‘+’) - Slows growth - Inhibits pathogens during fermentation - Cooperative interaction with nitrite - Reduced use may decrease shelf life Isoelectric point shift - Myofibrillar swelling and water uptake - Yield change occur reduced salt - Effects due to Cl

13. Flavor enhancer - Due to Na - Some is critical but preference is acquired Increases SSP extraction for binding meat pieces Increases WHC of proteins Lowers water activity Impurities - Oxidations - Reduced effectiveness of phosphates Sodium/hypertension-control use levels

14. 3. Potassium (KCl) 1) Functions Preservative (antimicrobial) Increases protein extraction for binding, WHC Substitute for NaCl in low-sodium meats Lowers water activity

15. 4. Curing agent(s)- nitrite “definitely magic” Highly distinctive Effects cannot be reproduced by any other compounds Highly effective at extremely low concentrations – very potent

16. Nitrite (sodium or potassium) Sole function is as nitrite reservoir Requires microbial reduction and can be variable in effect May have a role in fermented/dry products (some starter cultures include Micrococci for reduction by catalase) Critical to “uncured” (but really cured) natural and organic processed meats

17. Concerns for cured product without added nitrite/nitrate Variable nitrite source Nitrite reduction rate/consistency Amount of nitrite produced-both extremes - Dependent on product properties Shift in nitrite dispersion - Will rate of production affect distribution?? Microbiological impacts - Ingoing nitrite??

18. product Maximum levels lngoing level as NaNO 2 (ppm) lngoing level as NaNO 2 (ppm) Residual levels allowed as NaNO 2 (ppm) Bacon-pumped120 b NoneNo Control Bacon-immersion cured200 c 700 d 200 Cooked sausage156 e 1719 f 200 Dry and semidry sausage156 e 1719 f 200 Dry cured cuts625 g 2188 h 200 Pickle cured cuts (canned and uncanned)200700 d 200 Shelf stable, sterile canned comminuted products 156 e 1719 f 200 Baby foods; junior and Toddier meatsNone a Table gives maximum ingoing levels of nitrite and nitrate and maximum residual levels as sodium nitrite in various type meat products in USDA regulations as of 1983. b 550ppm ascorbate or erythorbate is also required. c The regulation actually reads "2 lbs. to 100 gal. pickle." d The regulation actually reads " 7 lbs. To 100 gal. pickle." e The regulation actually read "1/4 oz. to 100 lbs. chopped meat and /or meat by-product." f The regulation actually reads "2 3/4 oz. to 100 lbs. chopped meats." Most processors have discontinued use of nitrate in these products even though it is permitted, except in Lebanon bologna. g The regulation actually reads " 1 oz. to 100 lbs. meat(dry cured)." h The regulation actually reads " 2 lbs. to 100 gal. pickle at 10 percent pump level." it assumes 100 lbs./gal. i The regulation actually reads " 3 1/2 oz. to 100 lbs. chopped meat (dry cured)." Nitrate is used in these products to a greater extent than in comminuted products required to have the " keep refrigerated" statement on the label. Levels of nitrite and / or Nitrate Allowed in Curing Different Meat products a

19. Nitrite (sodium or potassium) Contributes color via NO (nitric oxide) formation – critical reaction - Facilitated by acid pH 2-3 pH units – 2x rate - Improved under vacuum - Encouraged by reducing conditions - Catalyzed by sodium chloride - Fixed by heat - Residual reservoir important

20. 1) Antioxidant Flavor protection Very effective (one function in preblends) probably because nitrite does this several ways - NO radical scavenger - Heme iron interaction - Specific antioxidant formation (?)

21. Lipid oxidation is a major factor influencing meat quality and can be harmful to health. Lipid oxidation is depends on a number of factors (e.g., fatty acid composition, oxygen, chemical species, salt, heating, packaging). *Lipid oxidation include primary products (Alkyl, alkoxy and peroxy radicals) secondary products (Aldehydes, ketones and epoxides; hexanal, propanal, malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal) Several products of lipid oxidation are responsible for rancid odors and flavors. Free radical mechanism of lipid peroxidation

22. 2) Microbial control Clostridium botulinum insurance Suppresses many types of organisms Synergism with salt is important as is temperature Use full amount possible - regulatory limits - 200 ppm ham, 156 ppm sausage, 625 ppm dry-cure products (USA) - 70 ppm (Korea)

23. 3) Nitrite and cured flavor Not well understood Important to delicate flavor profiles, i.e. ham Less important while other strong flavor contributors exist, i.e. bacon and fermented product

24. 4) Concerns for nitrite Toxicity - Methemoglobinemia - Record keeping is important - Colored, salt mixture (modern cure, etc.) Nitroso compounds - Bacon 120 ppm with 550 ppm reductant

25. 5) Cure accelerators Acidulants - Glucono delta lactate (0.5%) decrease pH 0.2-0.3 pH units (also dry sausage) - Sodium acid pyrophosphate - Citric acid

26. 6) Reductants Ascorbic acid, acid, sodium ascorbate, sodium erythorbate - Accelerate nitrite reduction to NO prevent ‘grey centers’ in rapid processes - Improves flavor stability, shelf life Avoid direct contact with cure Use full complement

27. 5. Phosphate Water binding (pH, ionic strength, specific protein solubility) - Improves yields, permit salt reduction Aids in muscle protein extraction for binding Improved emulsion stability collagen effect?? Microbial control 1) Several functions

28. Cation chelation - Counteract water hardness - Reduce lipid oxidation - pH control - Antimicrobial 0.5% maximum Mix in brines first, then other ingredients Excess use causes “soapy” taste, rubbery texture Sodium tripolyphosphate (primary phosphate)

29. 2) pH effects of phosphate Water retention, yields, and purge - 2-3 pH units Be careful for rate of cured color development 3) Chelation of cations Reducing divalent cations permits greater swelling Antioxidant contribution There functions may reduce protein effects of the phophates

30. 4) Specific protein effects Release cross-bridges induced by rigor Solubilizes structural proteins to permit greater swelling

31. 5) Several forms of phosphate OrthophpsphatesNa 2 HPO 4 PyrophosphatesNa 4 H 2 P 2 O 7 TripolyphosphatesNa 5 P 3 O 10 Polyphosphate (glassy) (hexametal) meta = cyclic phosphates Up to ≈15

32. Orthophpsphates pH (1% solution) Solubility at 25 ℃ (g/100g water) O MO ─ P ─ OM OM Monosodium phosphate Disodium phosphate Disodium phosphate dihydrate Trisodium phosphate Monopotassium phosphate Dipotassium phosphate Tripotassium phosphate Monocalcium phosphate NaH 2 PO 4 Na 2 HPO 4 2H 2 O Na 3 PO 4 KH 2 PO 4 K 2 HPO 4 K 3 PO 4 Ca(H 2 PO 4 ) 2H 2 O 4.6 9.2 9.1 11.8 4.6 9.3 11.9 3.8 87 12 15 14 25 168 107 -

33. Condensed phosphates Pyrophosphates pH (1% solution) Solubility at 25 ℃ (g/100g water) O O MO - P - O – P - OM OM OM Sodium acid pyrophosphate Tetrasodium pyrophosphate Tetrapotassium pyrophosphate Na 2 H 2 P 2 O 4 Na 2 P 2 O 7 K 3 P 2 O 7 4.3 10.3 10.5 87 12 187

34. Tripolyphosphates pH (1% solution) Solubility at 25 ℃ (g/100g water) Sodium acid pyrophosphate Tetrasodium pyrophosphate Tetrapotassium pyrophosphate Na 2 H 2 P 2 O 4 Na 2 P 2 O 7 K 3 P 2 O 7 4.3 10.3 10.5 87 12 187 O O O MO P O P O P OM OM OM OM

35. Long-chain Polyphosphates pH (1% solution) Solubility at 25 ℃ (g/100g water) Sodium pyrophosphate, glassy or Graham’s salt; three chain lengths; sodium hexametaphosphate has an average chain length of 13 (NaPO 3 ) 6 Na 2 O (NaPO 3 ) 13 Na 2 O (NaPO) 21 Na 2 O 7.7 6.9 6.3 40 O O O MO P O P O P OM OM OM n OM

36. Metaphosphates pH (1% solution) Solubility at 25 ℃ (g/100g water) Sodium trimetahosphate Sodium tetrametaphosphate (NaPO 3 ) 3 (NaPO 3 ) 4 4H 2 O 6.7 6.2 23 18 Tetra- O O MO P O P OM O O MO P O P OM O O

37. 6. Sodium ascorbate/erythorbate Accelerates cure reaction, cure color formation Provides reducing conditions for NO 2, conversion to NO Antioxidant to stabilize color and flavor Reduces nitrosamine formation by reducing residual NO 2-

38. 7. Flavoring agents (sensory enhancers) Sucrose “100” relative sweetness - Cane sugar - Non-browning - Salt masking (?) “masks off-flavor - 0.75%- provide “indicator” of temperature? (hedge against pathogens) ■ Sweeteners

39. “70” on sweetness scale Browning sugar Choice for fermentation speed - Below 0.5%, fermented pH will be proportional to dextrose level ■ Dextrose (corn sugar)

40. Texture - Myofibrillar proteins (rate is important) Color development (catalase etc.) Control of pathogens (Staphylococci) - pH below 5.0 - Bacteriocin, etc. ■ Starter Cultures (flavor)

41. ■ Starter Cultures

42. Lactic acid (homofermentation) Lipolytic effects of organisms Metabolic end products - Diacetyl, acetoin, etc. Protein hydrolysis - Low molecular weight products ■ pH changes

43. Flavor Color (carbonyls) Antioxidant compounds (phenols) Antimicrobial (acids, alcohols) Surface texture and skin - Keep chamber humidity in mind ■ Smoke and smoke flavoring

44. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Nucleotides Hydrolized vegetable protein (HVP) Antimicrobial (acids, alcohols) Autolyzed yeast extract Spices and seasoning - Be a aware of spice, etc. ■ Flavor modifiers

45. ■ 향신료

46. Only for problems of “loss of freshness” - Fresh sausage, dry sausage Hydrogen donors to interrupt cycle of autoxidation and show rancidity ■ Antioxidants and synergists

47. BHT (butylated hydroxyanisole) - Chelator Propyl gallate (PG), BHA (butylated hydroxytoluene) - Scavenger: radical 생성억제 - PG: “phenolic” antioxidants do not function with equal effectiveness for “initial stability” or “carry through stability” - Combinations have a greater total effect - May affect starter culture Alpha tocophernol (vit E) Spices and spice extractives (rosemary) ■ Primary antioxidants

48. Citric acid Monoisopropyl citrate Monoglyceride citrate - Chelators - Effective only with primary antioxidants ■ Synergists (secondary antioxidants)

49. Keep in mind spices intensity, color levels, general consumer image and conditions Propylparaben - propyl p-hydroxy benzoate - Casing applications: 3.5% solution Potassium sorbate - 10% solution - Effective against many microbial types - Proposed for meat curing (with 40 ppm nitrite): not approved ■ Mold inhibitors

50. Transglutaminase - Bacterial enzyme that cross-links muscle proteins - Cold-set binder creates muscle-link products Protein ingredients - Price of finish product - Need added meat flavor - Nutritional quality of finished product - Rehydrate well before use ■ Binders and Extenders

51. Soy protein concentration and isolate - Reduce cooking loss, reduce costs, increase yield, maintain meat-like texture - Add flavorants to offset flavor dilution Milk protein (whey and caseinate) - Improve fat and water retention - Improve yield, texture, reduce costs ■ Binders and Extenders

52. Hydrolyzed plant and animal proteins - Increase meat-based flavors - Proteins and peptides enhance water binding - Use with highly extended products Gelatin - Inexpensive protein - Water binding, cold-set gelling agent - Heat transfer medium in canned products (canned meats) - Limited meat particle binding and in essential amino acid ■ Binders and Extenders

53. Modified starch - Inexpensive, improves water retention in proteins - Improves freeze/thaw stability, less water loss - Carbohydrate based, not sweet like sugar - Limited use in brine to ~1% due to high viscosity and injector flow Hydrocolloids (carrageenan, alginate, gums) - Gels formed in meat products increase WHC - Interaction with Ca 2+, K + ions can reduce gel formation - Gelation is gum dependent reversible or irreversible upon heating ■ Binders and Extenders

54. ■ Binders and Extenders