1. ASSALAMUALAIKUM and Salam Sejahtera STA 2043 Pensyarah : Prof. Dr. Shabdin Mohd. Long

2. Mangrove Biology (Flora) PHYTOPLANKTON Phytoplankton are tiny, single-cell algae that drift about with the motion of the water. Phytoplankton are tiny, single-cell algae that drift about with the motion of the water. They are autotrophic organisms – occurring in all estuarine waters. They are autotrophic organisms – occurring in all estuarine waters. They provide direct food source for animals in the water column and in the sediments. They provide direct food source for animals in the water column and in the sediments. The dominant groups are diatoms and dinoflagellates. Other important groups include cryptophytes, chlorophytes (green algae) and chrysophytes (blue-green algae). The dominant groups are diatoms and dinoflagellates. Other important groups include cryptophytes, chlorophytes (green algae) and chrysophytes (blue-green algae).

3. Mangrove Biology (Flora) PHYTOPLANKTON The species composition of a given phytoplankton community is a function of various environmental factors including salinity, turbidity, nutrients, turbulence, and depth. The species composition of a given phytoplankton community is a function of various environmental factors including salinity, turbidity, nutrients, turbulence, and depth. Estuarine phytoplankton vary widely in size and shape. Estuarine phytoplankton vary widely in size and shape. Phytoplankton species can adapt to the changes of nutrient concentration and dissolved gas in estuary. Phytoplankton species can adapt to the changes of nutrient concentration and dissolved gas in estuary.

4. Mangrove Biology (Flora) PHYTOPLANKTON

5. PHYTOPLANKTON The density of phytoplankton cells depending upon the location of area in the mangroves. The density of phytoplankton cells depending upon the location of area in the mangroves. Number of phytoplankton cells was increased from the mouth to the center of the lagoon in Cananeia mangrove (Brazil). However the number was reduced in the creeks. Number of phytoplankton cells was increased from the mouth to the center of the lagoon in Cananeia mangrove (Brazil). However the number was reduced in the creeks. In Cananeia mangroves, diatom are the dominant group followed by micro flagellate, dinoflagellate, silicoflagellate and cyanophycaea. In Cananeia mangroves, diatom are the dominant group followed by micro flagellate, dinoflagellate, silicoflagellate and cyanophycaea.

6. Mangrove Biology (Flora) PHYTOPLANKTON Skletonema costatum if present in the mangroves will become a dominant species. Skletonema costatum if present in the mangroves will become a dominant species. Other species such as Thalassionema nitzschioides, Asterionella japonica, Coscinodiscus kursii, C. jonesianus, C. occulus, Chaetoceros abnormis, Cyclotella stylorum and Melosira granulata were also present in the Cananeia mangrove. All the species except Melosira granulata are marine neritic species. Other species such as Thalassionema nitzschioides, Asterionella japonica, Coscinodiscus kursii, C. jonesianus, C. occulus, Chaetoceros abnormis, Cyclotella stylorum and Melosira granulata were also present in the Cananeia mangrove. All the species except Melosira granulata are marine neritic species.

7. Mangrove Biology (Flora) PHYTOPLANKTON Phytoplankton in Cananeia contains 62.4% diatom, 24.8% microflagellate and 12.8% microplankton. Phytoplankton in Cananeia contains 62.4% diatom, 24.8% microflagellate and 12.8% microplankton. Phytoplankton density can achieves 6000 cell/liter in mangrove. The increased or decreased of its density are depending upon the the salinity. If the salinity increase – the number of cells will increase and vise versa. Phytoplankton density can achieves 6000 cell/liter in mangrove. The increased or decreased of its density are depending upon the the salinity. If the salinity increase – the number of cells will increase and vise versa. Another example of Phytoplankton Genera was in Orda mangrove, India:- Another example of Phytoplankton Genera was in Orda mangrove, India:-

8. Mangrove Biology (Flora) PHYTOPLANKTON Always found: Always found: Pleurosigma, Navicula, Nitzchia, Bacillaria, Coscinodiscus, Cymbella. Rare genera: Rare genera: Biddulphia, Diploneis, Mastogloia, Thalassiothrix, Stephanopyxis, Fragellaria, Gramatophora, Amphora, Thalassionema, Pinnularia, Cyclotella, Gyrosigma, Licmophora. For phytoplankton species in Sarawak Mangroves - Please refer project report by FRST student in the CAIS. For phytoplankton species in Sarawak Mangroves - Please refer project report by FRST student in the CAIS.

9. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Microbenthic Very little is known about microbenthic such as bacteria and unicell plant in mangrove. Very little is known about microbenthic such as bacteria and unicell plant in mangrove. Sacharolytic bacteria such as Pseudomonas- Achromobacter was dominant in Mangrove Cananeia. Sacharolytic bacteria such as Pseudomonas- Achromobacter was dominant in Mangrove Cananeia. Mangrove also full of phycomycete such as Thrausochytrium, Schizochytrium and Phlyctochytrium mangrovi. Mangrove also full of phycomycete such as Thrausochytrium, Schizochytrium and Phlyctochytrium mangrovi.

10. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Algae Red algae commonly found in the exposed area to sunlight especially on the stilt root of red mangrove. Red algae commonly found in the exposed area to sunlight especially on the stilt root of red mangrove. Among the genera found:- Among the genera found:- Bostrychia, Catenella, Calaglossas and Murrayella. The algae are exposed during low tide. However it has spongy mass at its stem and branches. The algae can also be found on the prop root. The algae can also be found on the prop root.

11. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Stilt root

12. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Algae Algae was also found on the pneumatophore of Avicennia trees. Algae was also found on the pneumatophore of Avicennia trees. Among the genera found were: Among the genera found were: Rhizoclonium (high tide area), Bostrychia & Catennela (all over the intertidal area). Also present on pneumatophore are:- Also present on pneumatophore are:- Monostroma, Laurencia, Dictyota, Acetabularia and Cladophoropsis. Muddy and sandy flat (shaded area):- Muddy and sandy flat (shaded area):- Algae carpet belong to genera; Caulerpa, Cladophoropsis, Vaucheria, Herposiphonia.

13. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Algae Green algae - Cladophora, Chaetomorpha, Enteromorpha and Ulva. Blue-green algae - Lyngbya, Oscillatoria, Phormidium and Calothrix were also found on the muddy/sandy flat in the shaded area. Green algae - Cladophora, Chaetomorpha, Enteromorpha and Ulva. Blue-green algae - Lyngbya, Oscillatoria, Phormidium and Calothrix were also found on the muddy/sandy flat in the shaded area. Algae was also found on the sea grasses. Genera - Avrainvillea, Udotea and Halimeda. Algae was also found on the sea grasses. Genera - Avrainvillea, Udotea and Halimeda. Red algae: was also found on shells and rubbish near shallow creeks in the mangrove. Genera Found: Gracilaria, Laurencia, Hypnea, Acanthophora, Polysiphonia, Centoceras and Ceramium. Red algae: was also found on shells and rubbish near shallow creeks in the mangrove. Genera Found: Gracilaria, Laurencia, Hypnea, Acanthophora, Polysiphonia, Centoceras and Ceramium.

14. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Algae Brown algae such as Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Padina, Rosenvingea and Hydroclathrus were also found on shells and rubbish in the mangrove. Brown algae such as Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Padina, Rosenvingea and Hydroclathrus were also found on shells and rubbish in the mangrove.

15. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics Zones in mangroveZones in mangrove Mangrove zone: covered by seawater 1 or 2 times per day. Tidal zone: covered by seawater during spring tide or cyclone.

16. Zones in mangrove High tide mark Low tide mark MudflatMangrove zone (Swampy mangrove) Tidal zone (Back mangrove) Freshwater swampLowland tropical evergreen Mangrove formation

17. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics Species compositionSpecies composition Composition of plants species vary from one to another places depending upon to the geography, weather, soil and water condition. At least 33 genera and 79 plant species were recorded in the mangrove forest all over the world.

18. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics Species compositionSpecies composition Out of the total above: 23 genera & 62 species are common trees (big and high from soil surface). 6 genera & 11 species are shrubs 3 genera & 3 species are palm trees 1 genera & 3 species – ferns.

19. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics Species zonationSpecies zonation In the mangrove forest, the different plant species occupy different areas which are more or less delimited from the others. The zonation is determined by the interaction by the 6 environmental factors i. Tidal flooding 5 classes of inundation: a. Class 1 : Area inundated by all high tides (flooded 56-62 times/month) b. Class 2 : Area inundated by medium high tides (flooded 45-59 times/month) c. Class 3 : Area inundated by normal high tides (flooded 20-45 times/month) 20-45 times/month)

20. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics d. Class 4 : Area inundated by spring tides (flooded 2-20 times/month) e. Class 5 : Area inundated by abnormal or equinoctial tides (flooded up to twice a month) ii.Soil types iii.Salinity of ground water iv.Frequency of inundation by seawater v. Water flow and soil humidity vi. Geographical condition of mangroves. Instead of 6 factors above, species zonation was also influenced by the different of root and seed growth due to competition factor.

21. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics Species zonationSpecies zonation Competition will create species gradient from the low to the high tide levels. The mangrove forests have been divided into various zones using the dominant tree as mean of zoning; and each subtype is named after the most dominant and most important species.

22. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics Species zonationSpecies zonation First Zone: close to the water – low tide area. Dominated by Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata and Nipa fruiticans. Second zone: interacted with the first zone but formed zone behind Rhizophora. Plant species in this zone such as: Avicennia and Bruguiera. Other species existed in this zone are Xylorcarpus & Exoecaria.

23. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics Species zonationSpecies zonation Third zone: behind the second zone. Plant species such as: Ceriops and Lumnitzera. Fourth zone: closed to the land. Dominated by Melaleuca species.

24. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics Species diversitySpecies diversity The mangrove complexity can be expressed through the use of species diversity index. Species diversity index of mangrove in the world are different, depending upon the location of the forest. The index depends on species composition (species number) and number of individual (plant) for every species.

25. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Plant Composition and Qualitative Characteristics PlaceDiversity index South Florida0.4070 Chantaburi, Thailand0.8790-0.7806 Phang-nga Bay, Thailand0.4103-0.7596 Sarawak (please refer thesis Khairul Adha Abd. Rahim – in CAIS).

26. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Terrestrial trees and shrubs 53 genera were recorded in Thailand. Eg. Acrostichum sp., cycas rhumphii, Xylocarpus sp. Dendrolobium unbellatum, Exoecaria littorale, Lumnitzera spp, Avicennia spp, Rhizophora spp, Sonneratia sp etc. Epiphytic Flowering Plants Epiphytes should not be confused with parasites. Parasites derive sustenance from the host plant. Epiphytes simply use the host as a method of anchoring themselves. They take no nourishment at all from the live tissues of the host plant. The only advantage they gain from their host is the humus from the decaying leaves of tree, which may accumulate around the root system of the epiphyte.

27. Mangrove Biology (Flora) Epiphytic Flowering Plants 23 species of epiphytic flowering plants in Thailand mangroves. They are belong to family Orchidaceae, Asclepiadaceae and Loranthaceae. Eg: Orchidaceae species. Acriopsis javanica, Bulbophyllum dixoni, Dendrobium cruentumEria ornata etc. Eg: Asclepiadaceae species. Dischidia rafflesiana, Hoya lacunosa etc. Eg. Loranthaceae species. Dendrophthee pentandra, Viscum ovalifolium etc.