1. Alvaro Garcia D.V.M Ph.D. Associate Professor South Dakota State Universit South Dakota State University

2.  Women have long played a significant role in dairy farming.  Aging farmer population and growing demand for niche markets encourage more women into owning niche markets encourage more women into owning and managing dairy farms. and managing dairy farms.  Women as principal dairy operator increased by 36%: operator increased by 36%: 1997 2.8 % 1997 2.8 % 20023.8% 20023.8%

3. Long-term planning vs. daily decisions  Men tend to decide about feed, women about calf care and milking.  The person who does the job makes the decisions.  Joint decisions about capital and dairy herds and long-term financial decisions (see table). Source: University of WI.

4. Graziers vs. nongraziers Hours per day in each activity MenWomen GraziersNongraziersGraziersNongraziers Farm work10.4810.834.275.43 Off-farm work 0.560.533.112.53 Housework*2.061.907.246.84 Leisure*9.589.309.679.23 * Housework includes childcare; leisure includes sleep and self-care Source: University of WI.

5.  Farm expansion  Reduction of owner-animal interaction  Higher reliance on problem detection by farm crew  Subclinical problems may escape diagnosis  Early treatment or management changes:  increase their effectiveness  improves animal welfare  reduces overall costs

6.  Influences profitability of farms due to: 1. involuntary culling 2. cow longevity 3. productive life

7. “Lactations completed before a cow is culled”  dilutes fixed and variable costs  fewer replacements needed per year  allows to concentrate in voluntary culling  allows improvement in genetic potential  important from an animal welfare perspective

8. How do I increase the net positive area/unit time ? David Galligan, 2007

9. Heifer Repro. Efficiency How do I increase the net positive area/unit time ? Alter time and $/d Affect Milk yield? Replacement Issue (Culling Technologies) Longevity/Pruning ? Sire Selection Efficiency “Seeds” Higher yield David Galligan, 2007

11.  Indicator of the environment al cleanliness:  Compromised comfort  Dirty cows > risk of intramamary infections  SCC increased as the score for udder, legs, and composited score increased. Reneau et al. 2005

12. In dairies where environmental mastitis predominates:  40-50,000 SCC per unit change in hygiene score.  Hygiene score from 4 to 2 = 100,000 less SCC in the tank. 12345 Adapted from: Reneau et al. (2005)

13.  Premiums  Production  Treatment costs  Culling

14. PREMIUMS TABLE CALCULATIONS SCC RangeSCC Adjuster 101 - 200$ 0.0025 201 - 350$ 0.0020 351 - 400$ 0.0000 401 - 500$-0.0010 501 - 600$-0.0013 601 - 700$-0.0015 701 - 750$-0.0020 Over 750$-0.0025 101 - 200$ 0.0025  350,000 SCC = 0.  Hygiene score of 4.5 and SCC of 350,000 no premiums or penalties.  Hygiene score drops from 4.5 to 1.5 and SCC from 350,000 to 200,000 150,000.  Premiums for low SCC paid on per lb of protein basis.  Avg. protein for the farm = 3.05%, SCC premiums calculation: (350 – 200)* rate from table/3.0 =.125 per lb of protein.  Calculations: $.125/lb of protein * avg. 3.05 protein for the farm = $.381/cwt.

15. SCC AND PRODUCTION THINGS TO CONSIDER: SCCDaily loss (Lbs.) 50,0000 100,0001.3 200,0002.6 400,0003.0 800,0005.3 1,600,0006.6 3,200,0007.9 Drops in SCC:  increase production,  improves animal health,  decreases treatment costs,  reduces culling losses,  increases longevity  Reduces replacement needs This is “opportunity milk” that could have been produced at no additional cost.

16. Affects production, milk quality and health of cows.  Affects production, milk quality and health of cows.  Healthy teats = less mastitis, better cow prep and letdown.  Impacts involuntary culling.  Milking machine in contact with cows 2-4 times per d.  Teat lesions result of over-milking or vacuum fluctuations.  Determine percent of the herd affected by teat lesions.

17. Mein et al. 2001

18.  Dairies with less than 100 cows? Score them all!. Large dairies? Select 80 animals at random or 20% of the herd, whichever number is larger.  Determine presence of hyperqueratosis (smooth and rough)  Associated with aspiration of teat ends during over-milking.  Teat shape also important (more frequent with pointy teats).  Lesions of the teat end and/or its skin predispose the cow to bacterial infection (Staph. aureus!).

19.  Among the best welfare indicators for dairy cattle.  Impairs production and reproduction, and increases culling.  Predisposing factors:  excessively smooth floors  irregular, excessively abrasive floors  Hoof hardness is critical  Hooves absorbed 1/3 of total water during the 1st hour of exposure to high moisture conditions Borderas et al. (2004)

20. Locomotion scoring guide ScoreDescriptionBackObservation 1Normalleveled Stands and walks with leveled back; normal gait 2 Slightly lame Leveled or arched Stands with leveled back, arches while walking; normal gait 3 Moderately lame arched Arched back standing and walking; short strides. 4Lamearched Arches back always; deliberate steps; favors one or more legs. 5 Severely lame Walks almost in 3 legs Shows inability or is extremely reluctant to walk, Adapted from: Sprecher et al. 1997 and Steven L. Berry, DVM, MPVM; Univ. of Davis, CA, and Zinpro® Corporation 1997, in J Hulsen, Cow Signals.

21.  Chronic trauma of the hocks  Reasons: inadequate stall design and/or amount of bedding.  Hock lesion score:  0 = normal, no lesions or hair loss;  1 = hair loss, no swelling;  2 = swelling, no hair loss;  3 = swollen hock with hair loss.  Easily performed during milking. % cows with lesions = (N o scores 1 or 2 or 3/cows scored)*100

22. Source: University of MN

23.  Direct costs (treatment)  Indirect costs: decreased production, reproduction, early culling.  Prolonged days to 1 st insemination, days open, time spent in the breeding group and services per conception. (Sprecher et al. (1997) (Sprecher et al. (1997)  Delayed ovarian activity during the post calving period. Garbarino et al. (2004) Garbarino et al. (2004)  Lame cows had 3.5 greater probability of delayed cycles.  Return to normal ovarian cycles in lame cows improved by 71% by preventing onset of lameness.

25. ScoreDM intakeMilk production ……..……% reduction…..…… 210 335 4717 51636 Source: Robinson, P. Locomotion scoring can be used to predict expected reductions in intake, Production, and associated economic losses. The greatest drop in production compared with DMI implies the cow prioritizes energy to maintain body tissues; the reduction in intake reflects on production. Lameness decreased milk yield by up to 682 lbs per lactation. Rajala-Schultz et al. 1999

26.  Several management issues can have an influence:  Adequate nutrition maintains hoof integrity and prolongs productive life.  Consequences: subclinical and clinical acidosis, laminitis (nutritional and/or management errors).  Effective fiber deficiency: grain in excess and/or highly fermentable carbohydrates.

27.  Ketosis, acute locomotion problems, and chronic lameness result in changes in short-term feeding behavior.  Ketosis: rapid decreases in intake, feeding time, and feeding rate during 3.6 d before diagnosis by farm personnel.  Acute locomotion disorders: smaller daily decreases in intake and feeding time, and daily increase in feeding rate during an average of 7.7 d from onset to diagnosis.  Daily feeding time changed most consistently.  It’s possible to detect more than 80% of cows with acute disorders at least 1 d before diagnosis by farm personnel. González et al. 2008

28. Feed intake Lbs of FWTime spent eating, min Ketosis*-22.0-45.5 Lameness, acute**-3.5-19.1 Lameness, chronicDaily number of visits Days from trimmingLameNon-lameLame -30-0.35NC-0.75 +30+0.31NC+0.32 FW = fresh weight; NC = no change; Days before actual diagnosis: *3.6 and **7.7 d González et al. 2008

29.  Manure consistency: indicator of digestive upsets.  Increased amount of undigested grain or a pH of the manure under 6.0 suggest accelerated rate of passage.  Inadequate dietary effective fiber (mat formation),  Origin: dietary imbalances or management flaws.  Animal competition results in an uneven intake of feeds.  Are subclinical and eventually clinical acidosis potential problems?  Score manure based on its consistency.

30. ScoreCharacteristics1 Very liquid, consistency of pea soup; it may “arc” from the rump. Excess protein or starch, too much mineral, or lack of fiber. Excess urea can create osmotic gradient drawing water into manure. Cow with diarrhea will be in this category. 2 Runny; does not form distinct pile. Measures less than 2.5 cm in height and splatters when it hits the ground. Cows on lush pasture; lack of effective fiber. 3 Optimum. Porridge-like appearance; stacks up 4 to 5 cm, have several concentric rings, dimple in the middle, makes plopping sound when it hits concrete floors. 4 Thicker, sticks to the shoe, and stacks up over 5 cm. Dry cows and older heifers (reflects feeding low quality forages and/or a shortage of protein). 5 Appears as firm fecal balls. Feeding straw based diet or dehydration would contribute. Cows with digestive blockage may exhibit this score. Modified from: D.Zaaijer, W.D.J. Kremer and J.P.T.M Noorhuizen in Hulsen, Jan. 2005. Cow Signals. Roodbont Publishers.

31.  Cow comfort index (CCI) = [ (# cows lying in stalls) / (# cows lying + # cows standing in a stall)]*100  Benchmark: 80-85  Time of measurement: when minimal amounts of feed are available, and when cows have not yet been disturbed.

32.  Stall use index (SUI) = [(# cows lying in stalls) / (# cows not eating)]*100  Benchmark: 75  Time of measurement: when minimal amounts of feed are available, and when cows have not yet been disturbed.

33.  Stall Standing index (SSI) = [# cows standing or perching in stalls / all cows in stalls]*100  Benchmark: 6 to 35%  Time of measurement: when minimal amounts of feed are available, and when cows have not yet been disturbed.

34.  Hygiene and lameness are priorities when evaluating cow comfort.  SCC are closely associated with cow hygiene.  Scoring for locomotion regularly (e.g. monthly) can help identify individual cows at risk of clinical lameness.  Locomotion scoring is useful to estimate economic losses and assess the cost-benefit of corrective actions.  Temperature/humidity index, hock lesions, changes in intake and body condition scores, are also important indicators when evaluating overall cow comfort.