1. Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior. Two parts to the question: 1.What are stereotypes (formation & research) 2.How does it impact behavior? (attitude, prejudice, discrimination)

2. Attitude Definition –Predisposition to respond in particular ways toward specific things Three Main elements 1.Belief or opinion about something 2.Feelings about that thing 3.A tendency to act toward that thing in certain ways

3. Cognitive Evaluation

4. Why do we have attitudes? 1.evaluate our own beliefs and values to define ourselves. –Develop a self-concept, personal identity 2.interpret the objects and events we encounter. 3.determine how to act in given situations.

5. Self-fulfilling Prophecy Belief, prediction, or expectation that operates to bring about its own fulfillment Examples –Belief that people are friendly  you are friendly and open  people are friendly back (confirmation)

6. Cognitive Dissonance Definition: –Uncomfortable clash between self-image, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes or perceptions and one’s behavior Cognitions  thoughts Dissonance  “clashing” –RJ: Festinger & Carlsmith Compliance & cognitive dissonance

7. How does it impact behavior? Cognitive dissonance makes us uncomfortable Way to diminish negative feeling… 1.Reject new information that contradicts beliefs 2.Convincing others adds proof 3.We convince ourselves 4.Adjust attitudes

8. Stereotypes Definition: oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular social group –Top three categories: 1.Gender 2.Age 3.Race Stereotypes can be positive or negative Stereotypes are decreasing –Turned into symbolic prejudice Prejudice that is expressed in a disguised fashion

9. FOUR Theories of Stereotypes 1.Social Cognitive theories (Cohen, 1981) 2.Social Identity Theory (Haslam and Turner, 1992) 3.Systems-Justification Theory 4.Social-Representations Theory

10. Social Cognitive Theories We live in a complex world that has too much information –We need to simplify our social world Social categorization –Categories  stereotypes Stereotypes are schemas –Energy saving devices –Automatically activated –Stable and resistant to change –Affect behavior

11. Research Theory: Social-Cognitive Theory (memory and stereotypes) Researcher: Cohen, 1981 Method: Experiment Hypothesis: We are more likely to remember information that is consistent with stereotypes Procedure: –Video of husband and wife at dinner Librarian or waitress Results: –Librarian: remember she wore glasses –Waitress: she was drinking beer

12. SIT (Social Identity Theory) Category accentuation –Emphasize in-group similarities and out-group differences Compare SIT with Social-cognition theory –SIT enriches social perception –SIT does not support that viewing a human as an individual is more accurate –SIT believes stereotypes are flexible

13. Research Theory: SIT on Stereotypes (flexible) Researchers: Haslam and Turner, 1992 Method: Experiment Hypothesis: stereotypes are flexible Groups (Australians) –Compare Soviet Union and US –Compare Iraqis and US Results –SU and US  US more aggressive –Iraq and US  Iraq more aggressive

14. System Justification Theory (SJT) Jost and Banaji’s 1994 theory –Stereotypes are used to justify social and power relations in society Rich and the poor Powerful and the powerless Negative Self-Stereotyping –Phenomenon of disadvantaged groups tending to internalize negative stereotypes of themselves held by others Social-cognitive and SIT does not explain this

15. Social-Representations Theory (SRT) Moscovici, 1984 –Social representations are the shared beliefs of the society Determined by social and cultural life Not ineffective thinking –Reflect dominant preconceptions shared by the dominant group

16. Prejudice and Discrimination SJT and SRT emphasize group stereotypes and their negative consequences Prejudice –Preconceived attitude toward a person or group Discrimination –Unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a group NOT an individual basis

17. Prejudice & Discrimination Prejudice –Preconceived attitude toward a person or group Formed without sufficient evidence Not easily changed Can lead to discrimination Discrimination –Unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a group NOT an individual basis

18. Stereotype Threat Effect Negative stereotypes impact performance –Individuals are asked to carry out a task and are made aware of negative stereotypes about their groups’ ability to perform Research –Spencer et al, 1999 Telling women that males usually do better (before the test) led to a decrease in performance scores –Steel & Aronson, 1995 African Americans scored less on a difficult verbal task if they were asked to state their race before the test

19. Ethnocentrism Belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to others –“us-them” thinking –Universal Leads people to feel more attached to a group

20. Durban, South Africa 1989

21. How do prejudices develop? 1. Scapegoating –Type of displaced aggression –Blaming a person for the actions of others or conditions not of their making

22. 2. Prejudiced Personality –Authoritarian Personalities Rigidity, inhibition, prejudice, oversimplication –Ethnocentric Placing one’s own group at the center –Dogmatism Unwarranted positiveness or certainty in matters of belief or opinion

23. 3. Intergroup conflict –Social Stereotypes Oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular social group Positive or Negative –Us vs. Them

24. Stereotypes in Film Does film reflect the stereotypes in society OR does film create stereotypes

25. Experiments in Prejudice Jane Elliot –Method: Unstructured experiment –Brown eyed, blue eyed experiment How did she create prejudice? –Status inequalities Differences in power, prestige, privileges

27. FOUR Theories of Stereotypes 1.Social Cognitive theories (Cohen, 1981) 2.Social Identity Theory (Haslam and Turner, 1992) 3.Systems-Justification Theory 4.Social-Representations Theory

28. Empirical Research Princeton Trilogy –Katz and Braley, 1933 –Gilbert, 1951 –Karlins et al, 1969 How do stereotypes impact behavior? –Darley and Gross, 1983 –Steele and Aronson, 1995

29. Katz and Braley, 1933 AIM: whether traditional stereotypes had a cultural basis Participants: 100 male Princeton students –Little contact with other ethnic groups Procedure: choose five habits that characterized different ethnic groups Results –Positive traits applied to own group (ingroup bias) –Majority agreement in negative traits Implications –Stereotypes are learned through the media, not from exposure Product of culture

30. Gilbert, 1951 Method: survey AIM: replicate Katz and Braley, 1933 Procedure  same Results –Less agreement about negative traits Except Japanese (bombing of Pearl Harbor) –Unhappy about being asked to express stereotypes Less accepted to express negative stereotypes –Still had ingroup bias Implications: stereotypes are cultural products –Stereotypes can change with cultural changes

31. Karlins et al, 1969 AIM: replicate other studies Results –Many objected to the task But, greater agreement on stereotypes –Re-emergence of social stereotyping Criticisms for Princeton Trilogy –Difference between knowledge of a stereotype and accepting it Research doesn’t consider this

32. Darely and Gross, 1983 Method: Experiment Hypothesis: by giving a few details, people apply stereotypes to an individual Procedure –Videos: Playing in a poor and rich environment (same girl) Taking an intelligence test Asked to predict future success Results –Rich girl would do well, poor girl would do less well Implications: use stereotypes to predict future success (treatment of people)

33. Steele and Aronson, 1995 Method: Experiment AIM: to see if belief in a stereotype impacts behavior Participants: African-Americans & European Americans (White). Procedure: verbal performance test –Two conditions… Told it was a test on “Verbal ability” “how problems were solved” Results –African Americans scored lower on the “verbal ability” test Implications –If an individual believes in a stereotype, it impacts their behavior

34. How do Stereotypes Impact Behavior? Stereotype Threat Effect Prejudice and Discrimination Attitudes Cognitive Dissonance

35. Stereotype Threat Effect Negative stereotypes impact performance –Individuals are asked to carry out a task and are made aware of negative stereotypes about their groups’ ability to perform Research –Spencer et al, 1999 Telling women that males usually do better (before the test) led to a decrease in performance scores –Steel & Aronson, 1995 African Americans scored less on a difficult verbal task if they were asked to state their race before the test

36. Prejudice and Discrimination Systems Justification Theory and Social- Representations Theory emphasize group stereotypes and their negative consequences Prejudice –Preconceived attitude toward a person or group Discrimination –Unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a group NOT an individual basis

37. Prejudice & Discrimination Prejudice –Preconceived attitude toward a person or group Formed without sufficient evidence Not easily changed Can lead to discrimination Discrimination –Unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a group NOT an individual basis

38. Ethnocentrism Belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to others –“us-them” thinking –Universal Leads people to feel more attached to a group

39. Durban, South Africa 1989

40. How do prejudices develop? 1. Scapegoating –Type of displaced aggression –Blaming a person for the actions of others or conditions not of their making

41. 2. Prejudiced Personality –Authoritarian Personalities Rigidity, inhibition, prejudice, oversimplication –Ethnocentric Placing one’s own group at the center –Dogmatism Unwarranted positiveness or certainty in matters of belief or opinion

42. 3. Intergroup conflict –Social Stereotypes Oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular social group Positive or Negative –Us vs. Them

43. Attitude Definition –Predisposition to respond in particular ways toward specific things Three Main elements 1.Belief or opinion about something 2.Feelings about that thing 3.A tendency to act toward that thing in certain ways

44. Cognitive Evaluation

45. Why do we have attitudes? 1.evaluate our own beliefs and values to define ourselves. –Develop a self-concept, personal identity 2.interpret the objects and events we encounter. 3.determine how to act in given situations.

46. Self-fulfilling Prophecy Belief, prediction, or expectation that operates to bring about its own fulfillment Examples –Belief that people are friendly  you are friendly and open  people are friendly back (confirmation)

47. Cognitive Dissonance Definition: –Uncomfortable clash between self-image, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes or perceptions and one’s behavior Cognitions  thoughts Dissonance  “clashing” –RJ: Festinger & Carlsmith Compliance & cognitive dissonance

48. How does it impact behavior? Cognitive dissonance makes us uncomfortable Way to diminish negative feeling… 1.Reject new information that contradicts beliefs 2.Convincing others adds proof 3.We convince ourselves 4.Adjust attitudes