1. Sampling methods in Qualitative Study Leili Salehi Health education & Promotion Department Public health School Alborz University of Medical Sciences

2. Selecting participants in qualitative research  Individuals who participate in qualitative study are not labeled “Subject”  Participants  Informants

3. sampling  Sampling are small, often ten to twelves' people  Sampling in qualitative studies focuses on the quality of the information not the quantity of participants.

4. 4 Major Types of Purposive Sampling Selection criteria: Elements’ fit or lack of fit with central tendency Selection criteria: Variability of elements Selection criteria: Theory, model development, and hypothesis testing Selection criteria: Judgment, reputation, or specialized knowledge Confirmatory samplingJudgment sampling Disconfirming samplingSubjective sampling HomogeneousNegative case sampling Bellwether case sampling Typical case samplingsamplingTheoretical sampling Reputational sampling Modal instance samplingCritical case samplingPolitically important cases Systematic matching samplingExpert sampling Case control samplingInformant sampling Consecutive sampling Deviant case samplingMaximum variation sampling Rare element samplingHeterogeneity sampling Extreme case samplingDiversity sampling Intensity case sampling Dichotomous case sampling Outlier sampling

5. Purposive Sampling  Researcher hand pick the participants  Individuals who are considered to be typical of the population are selected

6. Purposive Sampling  Sampling to Achieves Representativeness or Comparability  Sampling Special or Unique Cases  Sequential Sampling

7. Sampling to Achieves Representativeness or Comparability  Typical Case sampling  Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling  Maximum Variation Sampling  Reputational Case Sampling  Homogenous Sampling

8. Typical Case sampling  Sometimes we are interested in cases simply because they are not unusual in any way.  For Example: Years ago Howard Becker and Some of his Colleagues were interested in studying how medical students were socialized into the profession. They did their research at the university of Kansas Medical School not a highly prestigious medical school such as Harvard or Johns Hopkins exactly because there was nothing unusual about it, for that reason,was probably somewhat typical of the medical school experience.

9. Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling(outlier Sampling)  Sometimes extreme cases are of interest because they represent the purest or most clear cut instance of a phenomenon we are interested in.  For Example: If we were interested in studding management styles, it might be most interesting to study an organization that did exceptionally well and/or another that had high expectations but did exceptionally poorly.

10. Maximum Variation Sampling  Searching for cases or individuals who cover the spectrum of positions and perspectives in relation to the phenomenon one is studying, and would include both of the previous categories., both extreme and typical cases plus any other positions that can be identified.

11. Reputational Case Sampling  The researcher is looking for individuals who have particular expertise that is most likely to be able to advance the researcher's interests and potentially open new doors.

12. Homogenous Sampling  Deliberately reduces variation  It is used when researcher whishes to understand a particular group of people especially well.

13. Sampling Special or Unique Cases  Revelatory Case Sampling  Critical Case Sampling  Complete Collection(Criterion Sampling)

14. Revelatory Case Sampling  Revelatory Case Sampling involves identifying gaining entrée to a single case representing a phenomenon that has previously been inaccessible to scientific investigation. Such cases are rare and difficult to study, yet yield very valuable information about heretofore unstudied phenomena.

15. Critical Case Sampling  Here the researcher might be looking for a “decisive” case that would help make a decision about which of several different explanations is most plausible, or is one that is identified by experts as being a particularly useful site because of the generalizations it allows,e.g., recent findings that life exists at the bottom of the ocean where there is no sunlight, bitter cold, and immense pressure, suggest that life can exist almost anywhere.

16. Complete Collection(Criterion Sampling)  This involves searching for cases or individuals who meet a certain criterion,e.g., that they have a certain disease or have had a particular life experience.  For example, a colleague of mine is doing research with men who have been clients of sex workers; this would be considered criterion sampling.

17. Sequential Sampling  Theoretical sampling  Confirming and Disconfirming Cases  Opportunistic Sampling  Snowball Sampling

18. Theoretical sampling  Researchers who are following a more deductive or theory testing approach would be interested in finding individuals or cases that embody theoretical constructs. As this could be considered a particular type of criterion sampling, it also illustrates the overlaps that can exist between these categories(e.g., theory based sampling might also lead the researcher to look for particularly intense or extreme Cases).

19. Confirming and Disconfirming Cases  With this strategy the researcher is looking to extend his or her analysis by looking for cases that will disconfirm it, both to test theory and simply because it is often from our failures that we learn the most. The general principle here is “if you think your results are not generalizable or the existence of a particular kind of case will undermine all that you know to be true about a phenomenon then look for that kind of case.

20. Opportunistic Sampling(Emergent Sampling)  It consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time the study is carried out and fit the criteria your are looking for.

21. Snowball Sampling(Chain Sampling)  Also called network sampling  Useful for locating individuals who are difficult to locate in other ways.

22. Person 1 Friend/contact 1 contacts his/her own friends/contacts / Friend/contact 2 contacts his/her own friends/contacts / Friend/contact 3 contacts his/her own friends/contacts/ 456789 10101 1212 RESEARCHER RESEARCHER HAS 3 CONTACTS THE 3 CONTACTS EACH HAVE 3 CONTACTS SNOWBALL SAMPLING

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