1. Psychology 2314 Chapter 12 Adult Body and Mind Senescence Infertility Infertility treatments Andropause Menopause Mortality Morbidity Disability Intelligence/types Fluid/Crystallized intelligence Selective optimization with compensation Shifts in attitudes toward work

2. senescence: A gradual physical decline related to aging. Senescence How does a person’s appearance change from childhood through adulthood? 2

3. Senescence occurs in everyone and in every body part, but the rate of decline is highly variable within and between persons. Although senescence effects every body part, 60-year-olds can usually accomplish almost everything 30-year-olds can, albeit more slowly and selectively. The first visible changes are in the skin. By age 30, the skin is thinner and less flexible; the cells just beneath the surface are more variable, and wrinkles become visible, particularly around the eyes. By age 60, all faces are wrinkled— some much more than others—and the smooth taut, flexible young face has disappeared. The brain also slows down with age, and brain size decreases, with fewer neurons and synapses in middle adulthood than earlier Less than 1 percent under age 65 experiences significant brain loss with age— for this group, the cause may be attributed to drug abuse, poor circulation, viruses, and genes (such as those for Alzheimer’s disease). video Changes in vision are an obvious example of senescence and the value of organ reserve. Older adults, of course, do see, but by about age 60, the typical person becomes officially farsighted and needs reading glasses. To be specific, nearsightedness (difficulty seeing objects at a distance) increases gradually, beginning in one’s 20s; by middle age, the process reverses as farsightedness (difficulty seeing objects that are close) increases—because the lens of the eye and the cornea flattens

4. Changes in vision are an obvious example of senescence and the value of organ reserve. Older adults, of course, do see, but by about age 60, the typical person becomes officially farsighted and needs reading glasses. To be specific, nearsightedness (difficulty seeing objects at a distance) increases gradually, beginning in one’s 20s; by middle age, the process reverses as farsightedness (difficulty seeing objects that are close) increases—because the lens of the eye and the cornea flattens. Although presbycusis (literally, “aging hearing”) is rarely a problem before age 60, an alarming study suggests that hearing problems may soon begin in middle age. In this same study, 30 percent of a large group of high school students had symptoms of hearing loss (ringing, muffled sounds, temporary deafness) after they listened to music on MP3 players or the like.

5. How does vision change with age? Changes in Aging Vision Accuracy of vision overall Age (years) (a)(b) Age (years) Ability to focus on a point a foot away Source: Meisami, 1994. 20/60 20/50 20/40 20/30 20/20 20/10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 5 1525354555 65 presbyopia 5 020406080100

6. Fertility What are some causes and treatments for infertility? Common reason: low sperm count Anything that impairs the body over a 75-day period and reduces sperm count, shape, and motility (activity)—like fever, radiation, prescription drugs, drug abuse, alcoholism, cigarette smoking Anything that impairs physical functioning—like certain diseases, smoking, extreme dieting, and obesity Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) that scars tissue and blocks fallopian tubes, preventing sperm from reaching the ovum Assisted reproductive technology (ART) overcomes obstacles such as low sperm count and blocked fallopian tubes In vitro fertilization (IVF) is one ART procedure that involves the help of donor sperm, ova, and wombs to help the partner that is infertile or a person with no partner of the other sex Male causeFemale causeInfertility treatments Infertility 6

7. Menopause andropause: A term coined to signify a drop in testosterone levels in older men, which normally results in reduced sexual desire, erections, and muscle mass (also called male menopause). menopause: The time in middle age, usually around age 50, when a woman’s menstrual periods cease and the production of estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone drops. Strictly speaking, menopause is dated one year after a woman’s last menstrual period, although many months before and after that date are menopausal. 7 What happens to the sexual-reproductive life of men and women in middle age?

8. mortality: Death; usually refers to the number of deaths each year per 1,000 members of a given population. morbidity: Disease; usually refers to the rate of disease in a given population—physical and emotional, acute (sudden) and chronic (ongoing). How does the United States compare to other countries in life expectancy? Mortality and Morbidity Australia France Germany Japan Mexico Norway Poland Spain Turkey United States United Kingdom 6070809060708090 Life Expectancy at Birth, 2006 Female Male 8

9. On average women live five years longer than men. This gender difference could be biological—the second X chromosome or extra estrogen could protect women from some illnesses. It also might be cultural since women tend to have more friends and take better care of themselves.

10. Disability and Vitality disability: Difficulty in performing normal activities of daily life. vitality: A measure of health that refers to how healthy and energetic an individual actually feels. Why do DALY and QALY measurements matter? DALY calculations measure the reduced quality of life caused by disability QALY calculations compare mere survival without vitality to survival with good health. A full year of health is a full QALY; people with less than full health have a fraction of QALY each year. Thus, their total QALY is less than the total years they live. 70 years old DALY: Disability-adjusted life yearsQALY: Quality-adjusted life years 10 x 10 % reduced function 63 DALYs = 70 years old x 100 % vitality 70 QALYs =

11. Research on Age and Intelligence How have some adults fared on tests developed for the Seattle Longitudinal Study? Seattle Longitudinal Study: The first cross-sequential study of adult intelligence (began in1956; most recent testing in 2005). 11 cross-sectional research: A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics. cross-sequential research: A hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach). longitudinal research: A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed. Source: Schaie, 1989 Scores 30 5562697683 Age (b) Two men Scores 43505764 71 25 75 35 55 Age (a) Two women 154503 155510 45 65 40 50 60 70 153013 153003 clerical worker purchasing agent homemaker teacher who retired

12. Many and Varied Fluid IntelligenceCrystallized Intelligence The types of basic intelligence that make learning quick and thorough. Includes abilities such as short- term memory, abstract thought, and speed of thinking. The types of intellectual ability that reflect accumulated learning. Vocabulary and general information are examples. Test your intelligence What comes next in each of these two series? What is the meaning of the word misanthrope? 4 9 1 6 5 3 V X Z B D What is the formula for the area of a circle? What was Sri Lanka called in 1950? Two Clusters of Intelligence 12

13. Age and Culture creative intelligence: A form of intelligence that involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and innovative. analytical intelligence: A form of intelligence that involves such mental processes as abstract planning, strategy selection, focused attention, and information processing, as well as verbal and logical skills. practical intelligence: The intellectual skills used in everyday problem solving. 13 What are some of the different types of intelligence that may be important for success in different cultures?

14. Optimization and Compensation Older adults must compensate for aging by selecting one task, to optimize their overall performance 14 selective optimization with compensation: The theory that people try to maintain a balance in their lives by looking for the best way to compensate for physical and cognitive losses and to become more proficient in activities they can already do well.

15. Expert Cognition What are the qualities of expert thought? Expert cognition StrategicFlexibleAutomaticIntuitive Novices follow formal procedures. Experts rely on their past experiences and on immediate context. Experts have more and better strategies, especially when problems are unexpected (Omerod, 2005). Due to intuitive, automatic, strategic thinking, experts are also more flexible, deliberately experimenting and enjoying new challenges when things to do not go according to plan (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Experts process incoming information more quickly and analyze it more efficiently than do non- experts and then act in a well-rehearsed way that makes their efforts appear unconscious. 15

16. Expertise and Age How has the shift in attitudes toward work that women do affect adult expertise? U.S. Medical School Graduates, 1982-83 to 2008-09 18,000Number of graduates 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 1982-83 1984-851986-871988-891990-911992-931994-951996-971998-992000-012002-032004-052006-072008-09 Academic Year Source: Association of American Medical Colleges, 2010. MenWomen women’s work: A term formerly used to denigrate domestic and caregiving tasks that were once thought to be the responsibility of females. 16

17. Psychology 2314 Chapter 13 Adulthood Psychosocial Development Generativity vs Stagnation Linked lives Social Clock The empty nest syndrome Big 5 personality trait perspective Egological niche Coping strategies Carl Jung perspective Marriage development Social convoy Kinkeepers Allocastic load Parent/adult child attachment Fictive Kin Relative deprivation Sandwich generation

18. Erickson’s theory of development is a significant theory that describes changes during adulthood. Erickson describes two stages: intimacy vs isolation and generativity vs stagnation Development is influenced by the social clock. The social clock is a timetable that is defined by social norms. Social Clock Trends: The lower a person’s Socioeconomic status, the younger the age at which he or she is expected to leave school, begin work, marry or have children. The notion of a midlife crisis is a myth, and is not accepted by developmentalists as an inevitable crisis around age 40. Development continues throughout our lives and during adulthood, personality stabilizes. Remember, I said earlier that personality traits are genetic and temperament is influenced by other influences.

19. The Social Clock How do adults transition from one stage to another in adulthood? Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 19 Source: Maslow, 1954. 5. Self-actualization Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential 1. Physiology Need to satisfy hunger and thirst 2. Safety Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable 3. Love and belonging Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation 4. Success and esteem Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others

20. The Big Five personality trait: OCEAN > Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism is responsible for the continuity in adulthood, however, other developmental factors can also have a significant influence on continuity. Openness and Conscientiousness tend to increase in adulthood while Neuroticism tend to decrease. As personality begins to stabilize, people settle in to a vocation, a mate, a neighborhood, and daily routine that are compatible with his or her particular personality needs and interests, what is called an ecological niche. Age-related shifts in adult personality generally reflect whatever traits are valued in one’s culture at the time. Conscientiousness in China, extroversion in Australia, openness in the United States, and agreeableness in the Philippines. In many cultures, rigid gender-role demands loosen during the middle age, this leads to what some scholars refer to as a gender convergence, becoming more similar, of personality traits.

21. Imaginative, curious, artistic, creative, open to new experiences Openness ConscientiousnessExtroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Personality through Adulthood What are the clusters of personality traits in the Big Five? Openness 21 Big Five: The five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout adulthood. The degree to which one is…

22. Organized, deliberate, conforming, self-disciplined Openness ConscientiousnessExtroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Personality through Adulthood What are the clusters of personality traits in the Big Five? Conscientiousness 22 Big Five: The five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout adulthood. The degree to which one is…

23. Openness ConscientiousnessExtroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Personality through Adulthood What are the clusters of personality traits in the Big Five? Extroversion Outgoing, assertive, active 23 The degree to which one is… Big Five: The five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout adulthood.

24. Kind, helpful, easygoing, generous Openness ConscientiousnessExtroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Personality through Adulthood What are the clusters of personality traits in the Big Five? Agreeableness 24 The degree to which one is… Big Five: The five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout adulthood.

25. Anxious, moody, self-punishing, critical Openness ConscientiousnessExtroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Personality through Adulthood What are the clusters of personality traits in the Big Five? Neuroticism 25 The degree to which one is… Big Five: The five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout adulthood.

26. According to Jung, a theorist and a student of Freud, each individual has to accept both the masculine and feminine side of themselves and is evidenced by gender convergence. In adulthood, friends become very important and may offer emotional support. Friends are the most supportive members of our social convoy, a social convoy is a group of people with whom we form relationships that guide us through life. Our social convoy also lends support when the allocastic load becomes too much. The allocastic load is the total burden of stress and disease with which an individual must cope. During the generativity vs stagnation stage, one of the difficulties during this stage is that the adult is caring for both a child and an aging parent; this individual is referred to as the sandwich generation which can be very emotionally taxing…marriage becomes very significant

27. Marriage empty nest: The time in the lives of parents when their children have left the family home to pursue their own lives. What are typical stages in a marriage with children? Marital Happiness over the Years 27 Interval After WeddingCharacterization Honeymoon period—happiest of all Happiness dips; divorce is common; usual time for birth of first child Happiness holds steady Happiness dips as children reach puberty Happiness rises when children leave the nest Happiness is high and steady, barring serious health problems First 6 months 6 months to 5 years 5 to 10 years 10 to 20 years 20 to 30 years 30 to 50 years

28. Before marriage Divorced parents Either partner under age 21 Family opposed Cohabitation before marriage Previous divorce of either partner Large discrepancy in age, background, interests, values (heterogamy) During marriage After marriage Divergent plans and practices regarding childbearing and child rearing Financial stress, unemployment Substance abuse Communication difficulties Lack of time together Emotional or physical abuse Relatives who do not support the relationship High divorce rate in cohort Weak religious values Laws that make divorce easier Approval of remarriage Acceptance of single parenthood Divorce What factors make divorce more likely? 28

29. Family Bonds What kinds of relationships did the subjects of a study report they had with their adult children? Amicable Close relationship with adult child Gets along well High communication Detached Distant relationship with adult child Low on communication Disharmonious Conflict in relationship with adult child Critical Arguing Ambivalent Both close and critical relationships with adult child High on communication familism: The belief that family members should support one another, sacrificing individual freedom and success, if necessary, in order to preserve family unity. 29

30. To decrease the emotional difficulty that the sandwich generation may experience, in addition to relying on the emotional support of the social convoy, the members of the sandwich generation may rely on family members The word family should not be confused with household Household refers to the people who live in the same dwelling Family members have linked lives; experiences both positive and negative affect other members of the family Sometimes we become fictive kin to members of our social convoy, when individuals are not close to their own family; they may become fictive kin of another family, this may be beneficial when of age children leave the home and women experience an emotional distress, known as the empty nest syndrome

31. This can be a time of emotional stress for both parents, or it can be a time in which parents may again rekindle the passion in the relationship Couples that have maintained a parental alliance may experience intimacy and satisfaction of marriage during the empty nest stage, however for most adults; the chief form of of generativity involves caring for the children. Although the intimacy and satisfaction of marriage often decrease with parenthood, the level of commitment increases However, during this empty nest stage, we see an increase in divorce, divorce in middle adulthood is generally more difficult because it reduces income, family welfare, and self-esteem…second marriages end in divorce more often than first marriages Coping strategies may decrease the consequences of our allocastic load.

32. There are two coping strategies: Problem-focused coping is a coping strategy in which people try to cope with stress of the problem by addressing the problem directly Emotion-focused coping is a coping strategy in which people try to cope with stress of a problem by addressing the problem by trying to change their emotions. Older adults are more likely to be emotion-focused, while younger adult are more likely to be more problem-focused Women are likely to be more emotion-focused, while men are more likely to be more problem-focused this may be because women produce the hormone oxytocin which triggers tend-and-befriend behaviors Women are kinkeepers, maintain the links between generations, like Madea Strong bonds between parent and child are particularly hard to create when a child has strong attachments to other caregivers

33. Caring for biological children Labor-intensive expression of generativity Transformative experience with more costs than benefits when children are young (Umberson et al., 2010) Caregiving nonbiological children About 1/3 of all North American adults become stepparents, adoptive parents, or foster parents Caregiving aged parents The “Sandwich Generation” is the generation of middle-aged people who are supposedly squeezed by the needs of the younger and older members of their families. kinkeeper: A caregiver who takes responsibility for maintaining communication among family members. 33 Caregiving

34. Employment As people get older, intrinsic rewards, rather than extrinsic rewards may take on greater value 34 intrinsic rewards of work: The intangible gratifications (e.g., job satisfaction, self- esteem, pride) that come from within oneself as a result of doing a job. extrinsic rewards of work: The tangible benefits, usually in the form of compensation (e.g., salary, health insurance, pension), that one receives for doing a job.

35. Adoptive parents are legally connected to their children for live and may have an advantage in establishing bonds with their children, but not without deliberate effort to do so. As people age, the intrinsic rewards associated with working tend to become more important than the extrinsic rewards Job change is becoming increasingly common in adulthood, and losing a job during the generativity stage may be more devastating than for a younger adult This is true for several reasons: Older workers may never have learned the skills required for a new job Older workers are paid more, taking a new job means a pay decrease Older workers may find relocation more difficult Relative deprivation may also add to the negative emotional distress that older workers experience

36. Relative deprivation is the idea that people compare themselves to their in their group and are satisfied if they are no worse off than the group norm Work provides a sense of identity and may be a source of social status and fulfillment and may meet the generativity needs by allowing people to do the following: Develop and use their personal skills Express their creative energy Aid and advise coworker as a mentor or friend Support the education and health of their families Contribute to the community by providing goods and services By implementing forced retirement, if the older adult is not ready, this may prove difficult in and add to feelings of stagnation More diversity in the workplace has increased the need for mentors and working conditions that take into account the specific needs of the individual

37. Closing Thoughts If you were in a debate about the effects of the social clock during middle adulthood—that is, the prescribed timetable for marriage, parenthood, and the like—how would you support an argument that there is not one clock that reflects the experience of the middle adult years? 37