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2. 2 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Sylvia S. Mader Immagini e concetti della biologia

3. 3 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 B6 - Biotechnology and genomics

4. 4 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Restriction enzymes Enzymes that cleave and repair DNA are used to manipulate and recombine DNA. Restriction enzymes, naturally used by bacteria as defense against bacteriophages, cut DNA into smaller pieces. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific base sequences called restriction site.

5. 5 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Recombinant DNA DNA fragments can be rejoined, by DNA ligase in bacterial plasmids, to form a new molecule of recombinant DNA (rDNA).

6. 6 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Recombinant DNA rDNA can be used either to clone genes or to make a specific protein. Bacteria takes the recombinant plasmid Gene cloning Protein production The altered host cell is called transgenic or genetically modified organism (GMO).

7. 7 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 PCR Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) it is possible to obtain copies of a specific sequence of DNA. PCR uses: DNA-polymerase, an enzyme that makes copies of the DNA strand; Free Nucleotides, to create the new strand.

8. 8 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 PCR PCR is the basis for many important DNA analysis as DNA fingerprint and evolutionary studies. PCR-base DNA fingerprint use to determine paternity.

9. 9 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Genetically Modified Organisms Recombinant DNA technologies produce genetically modified bacteria to manufacture medical and commercial products (as insulin) and perform specific services (as water treatment).

10. 10 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Genetically modified plants Future objective for genetically modified crops

11. 11 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Genetically modified plants Genetic engineering is also used to increase plant resistance to harsh environments (drought, frost, acid, salt).

12. 12 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Genetically modified plants Genetically modified plants, as Solanum tuberosum, are also developed to improve pest resistance to the potato bug (Leptinotarsa decemlineata).

13. 13 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Are GM foods safe? Countries have different regulations for GMO and the derived food commerce and cultivation. Long-term problems related to GMO could be: Environmental risks Ecological impact Health and allergies risks Impact on biodiversity

14. 14 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Animals are genetically engineered to exalt specific traits or obtain useful products: GM animals can produce pharmaceuticals GM mice are bred for human disease research Xenotransplantation (animals as organs donor in transplantation) Genetically modified animals

15. 15 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Genetically modified animals Genetically engineered animals are often used to obtain female mammal clones able to produce a specific product as the human growth hormone.

16. 16 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Human Genome Project Human genome has been sequenced in “Human Genome Project” (HGP). The order of about 3x10 9 bases contained in the human DNA has been determined. Genome sizes of humans and other sequenced species

17. 17 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Human gene therapy Gene therapy is used to modify abnormal genes and can be done in two ways. 1.ex vivo - anomalous cells are removed, treated and reinserted into the body. 2.in vivo - the gene is delivered directly into the body.

18. 18 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Future genetics Because of the HGP, new and safer medicines will be available and genetic disorders may be corrected. Based on the genetic profile of a single person, personalized therapies will be more available.

19. 19 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Proteomics and bioinformatics Proteomics is the study of the structure, function and interaction of cell proteins. The human proteome is the complete collection of proteins that humans synthesize. Bioinformatics is the application of computer technologies to the study of the genome.

20. 20 Sylvia S. Mader Concepts of Biology © Zanichelli editore, 2012 Functional and comparative genomics One aim of functional genomics is to discover how genes work in order to produce differentiated cells and tissues. Comparative genomics focuses on determining how species are related and the function of genes and noncoding regions.