1. Chapter 13 – Sculpture Thinking Ahead:
1. How does relief sculpture differ from sculpture-in-the-round?
2. How do subtractive processes differ from additive processes?
3. What is involved in casting processes?
4. What is assemblage?

2. Sculpture
All of the media we have so far considered—drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, and time-based media—are generally considered two-dimensional media.
Sculpture is a three-dimensional medium and relates to the time and space we ourselves occupy.
It is one of the oldest and most enduring of all the arts.

3. Richard Serra, The Matter of Time, 2005
Richard Serra, The Matter of Time, Installation of seven sculptures, weatherproof steel, varying dimensions.
Serra’s sculpture possesses both a physical presence (its “matter”) and a temporal dimension (the “time” that it takes for someone to walk in and through each of the pieces)

4. Different types of sculpture:
Carving
Modeling
Casting
Assemblage/Construction
Installation Art
Earthworks
Performance Art

5. 2 Sculptural Processes: Subtractive & Additive
In the subtractive process, the sculptor begins with a large mass and removes part of it, or “subtracts” from it, to create the final result.
For example, a sculptor can start with a large piece of stone and carve a statue by removing material; the finished work would be accomplished through the subtractive method.
In the additive process, the sculptor builds up the work, “adding” material to achieve the final result. The finished work is larger than the individual materials that were combined to create it.

6. 2 Sculptural Processes: Subtractive & Additive
Subtractive processes:
carving
Additive processes:
Modeling, construction, assemblage, installations
Casting has additive aspects
Both:
Earthworks

7. 3 ways we experience sculpture:
Relief
Low relief
High relief
Sculpture-in-the-round
Environment
Site-Specific Sculpture
Installation sculpture
Earthwork sculpture
Performance Sculpture

8. Relief
Relief sculpture has three-dimensional depth but is attached to a surface.
It is typically meant to be seen from one side only - frontally.
Low relief vs. high relief
Low: any sculpture that extends from the plane behind it less than 180 degrees is considered low relief.
High: any sculpture that projects forward from its base by at least half its depth, and several elements are fully in the round.

9. Senwosret I led by Atum to Amun-Re, from the White Chapel at Karnak, Thebes, c BCE. Limestone, raised relief, height 13 ft, 6 in. An example of low relief. We can see the figures, but they remain relatively flat. The Egyptians were great masters of relief sculpture. They often decorated the walls of their temples and burial complexes with intricate raised relief sculpture, most of which was originally painted.

10. Maidens and Stewards, fragment of the Panathenaic Procession, from the east frieze of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, BCE. Marble, height approx. 43 in. Low relief: although the figures look more round that the Egyptian sculpture, they are still fairly flat. Showing the human figures from a three-quarter angle allows them to “turn back” in space, allowing them to appear deeper than they actually are.

11. Yu the Great Taming the Waters, Qing dynasty, completed 1787
Yu the Great Taming the Waters, Qing dynasty, completed Jade, height 7ft. 4¼in. x 3ft. 1 ¾ in. High relief. This work was carved from the largest single piece of jade ever discovered. The un-carved block weighed 6 tons! A team of craftsmen spent almost eight years carving this magnificent achievement. The figures project at least half of their depth off the surface, and some are fully rounded. The artwork tells the story of a monumental feat that was accomplished by hard work and dedicated service to one’s ruler (appropriately, the same values occurred to create the sculpture!).

13. Sculpture-in-the-round
Sculpture-in-the-round is unattached to any surfaces
It literally demands movement. It is typically meant to be viewed from all sides, and the viewer must move around it.

14. Giambologna, Capture of the Sabine Women, completed 1583
Giambologna, Capture of the Sabine Women, completed Marble, height 13ft. 6in. An excellent example of the movement of sculpture-in-the-round. This piece cannot be realized from only one angle; you must view it from all sides, as it spirals around and changes from different angles.

16. Carving
Carving is a subtractive process, in which the material being carved is either chipped, gouged, or hammered away from the solid, raw block of sculptural material.
Wood and stone are two of the most common carving materials.
When carving, each material presents unique difficulties. Wood will only split in the direction it grows; sandstone is gritty and coarse, marble is soft and crystalline, and granite is dense and hard.

17. Michelangelo, “Atlas” Slave, c. 1513-20. Marble, 9ft. 2in
Michelangelo, “Atlas” Slave, c Marble, 9ft. 2in. Michelangelo, known for his painting achievements on the Sistine Chapel Ceiling, actually considered himself, first and foremost, a sculptor. He even wrote poetry about sculpture. Michelangelo imagined figures trapped inside blocks of stone and it was his task as a sculptor to free that figure from the imprisoning block of stone. He has given up on this sculpture, leaving the figure of Atlas trapped within the stone.

18. Menkaure with a Woman, probably Khamerernebty, from valley temple of Menkaure, Giza. Dynasty 4, c BCE. Schist, height 54½ inches. These funerary sculptures were carved to contain the ka, or individual spirit, of the deceased into the eternity of the afterlife. Stone’s permanence was felt to guarantee the ka’s immortality.

19. Kritios Boy, c. 480 BCE. Marble, 36 inches tall
Kritios Boy, c. 480 BCE. Marble, 36 inches tall. Greek sculpture was strongly influenced by Egyptian sculpture, but the Greeks quickly developed a far more naturalistic style. It is less rigid, and seems more at ease and life like. The Greeks believed that the strongest connection between the spiritual immortal gods and the world of humanity was beauty itself. They believed that the most beautiful thing of all was the perfectly proportioned, usually athletic, male figure.

20. Praxiteles, Hermes and Dionysos, c. 330 BCE. Marble, height 7 ft. 1 in
Praxiteles, Hermes and Dionysos, c. 330 BCE. Marble, height 7 ft. 1 in. Praxiteles, the most famous sculptor of his day, further developed the naturalism of figurative sculpture. He shifted the weight in his figures to make their pose more dynamic. This pose is known as contrapposto, or counterbalance. The hips and shoulders counter against one another, creating an S-curve in the body that gives a greater sense of naturalism and movement.

21. Cartoon by Peter Duggan, illustrating the differences between the traditional Egyptian posesin sculpture and the Classical Greek pose that uses contrapposto.

22. Three Goddesses, from the east pediment of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, c BCE. Marble, over life size. Although sitting and reclining, note the shifted weight and contrapposto poses.

23. Jim Sardonis, Reverence, 1989. Black granite, height 13ft
Jim Sardonis, Reverence, Black granite, height 13ft. Stone is a symbol of permanence, and out of all stones, black granite is one of the hardest and most durable. Jim Sardonis chose this stone for his sculpture, Reverence, to show the contrast between the stone’s permanence and whales’ threatened survival.

24. Modeling
Modeling, in sculpture, is an additive process, in which the sculptor shapes some material, such as clay or plaster.
Ceramics: any work that is made out of clay.
Firing refers to “baking” ceramics to a high temperature to allow the material to become hard and waterproof.
A kiln is the special oven used for firing ceramics.

25. Robert Arneson, Case of Bottles, 1964
Robert Arneson, Case of Bottles, Glazed ceramic (stoneware) and glass, 10 ½ x 22 x 15 in.
Note the rough handmade quality of the work.
Clay is a popular material because of its capacity to be molded into forms that retain their shape.

26. Tomb of the emperor Qin Shihuangdi, 221-206 BCE
Tomb of the emperor Qin Shihuangdi, BCE. Painted ceramic figures, life-size. These ceramic works were discovered in the tomb of the first emperor of China in It took more than 700,000 men to complete this work! The tomb contains more than 6,000 life-size, and extraordinarily life-like ceramic figures of soldiers and horses. Each soldier contains individual characteristics.

27. The body parts were cast by pouring liquid clay into molds, assembling different parts to make the soldiers look unique, and firing the clay so that the sculptures would become hard and durable.

28. Casting Casting was invented during the Bronze Age (2500 BCE).
It is a replacement process – bronze replaces wax.
Casting involves the creation of a form (often made using modeling), then building a mold around the form and pouring a material into the mold, which dries in the form of the original form.
The poured material is often a molten metal, as in the lost-wax process.
Investment – a mixture of water, plaster, and powder made from ground-up pottery that fills the space inside the wax lining.
Patina – a chemical compound applied to the bronze by the artist that forms a film on the surface after exposure to the elements.

29. An example of cast brass sculpture
Head of an Oba, Edo, Court of Benin, Nigeria, Guinea Coast, 18th century. Brass and iron, height 13 1/8 in.
An example of cast brass sculpture
Also an example of the lost-wax process, which was invented by the Greeks

30. The Lost-Wax Casting Process
The Lost-Wax Casting Process. Invented in order to create hollow images rather than solid ones. The positive model (1) often created with clay, is used to make a negative mold (2). The mold is coated with wax, the wax shell is filled with a cool fireclay, and the mold is removed (3). Metal rods, to hold the shell in place, and wax rods, to vent the mold, are then added (4). The whole is placed in sand, and the wax is burned out (5). Molten bronze is poured in where the wax used to be. Then the bronze is hardened, the whole is removed from the sand, and the rods and vents are removed.

31. Auguste Rodin, The Burghers of Calais, 1884-85
Auguste Rodin, The Burghers of Calais, Bronze, 79⅜ x 80⅞ inches.
This work was cast in several pieces, then put back together again after they were cast in metal. Pieces can be joined together in 2 ways: pounded together with a a hammer, or welded, the more usual procedure today. An example of sculpture in the round – an assemblage of individual fragments that the viewer can only experience by walking around the whole and taking in each element from a different point of view.

32. Nancy Graves, Variability and Repetition of Similar Forms, II, 1979
Nancy Graves, Variability and Repetition of Similar Forms, II, Bronze with pigmented wax patina on Cor-Ten steel base, 6 x 12 x 16 ft.
This work consists of 36 leg bones, modeled after life-size camel bones. The bronze was covered with a white-wax patina: a chemical compound applied to the bronze by the artist that forms a film or encrustation on the surface.

33. Luis Jiménez, Howl, Fiberglass and acrylic urethane, 60 x 29 x 29 in. Bronze is traditionally the favorite material for casting, but other materials have become more available to artists, such as fiberglass, seen in this artwork. Both bronze and fiberglass are favored for their durability outdoors.

34. Assemblage
Assemblage is the process of bringing individual objects or pieces together to form a larger whole.
Think of Rodin’s Burghers of Caliais and Graves’s Variability and Repetition of Similar Forms.
As a process, assemblage is often associated with the transformation of common materials into art.

35. Louise Nevelson, Sky Cathedral, 1958
Louise Nevelson, Sky Cathedral, Assemblage: wood construction, painted black, 11ft. 3½in. x 10ft. X 18in. Assemblage A giant assemblage of wooden boxes, wood working remnants and scraps, and found objects. It is frontal and functions as a high relief altarpiece.

36. Jeff Koons, Puppy, Stainless steel, soil, geotextile fabric, internal irrigation system, and live flowering plants, 40 ft. 8¾ in. x 27 ft. 2¾ in. x 29 ft. 10¼ in. Assemblage Like a large Chia pet.

37. Robert Gober, Untitled, Plaster, beeswax, human hair, cotton, leather, aluminum, and enamel. 33 ½ x 40 x 24 in. Assemblage Odd materials in this assemblage, including actual body hair, shoes, and socks. Gober is literally including everything AND the kitchen sink.

38. Environment
An environment is a sculptural space into which you can physically enter either indoors, where it is generally referred to as an installation or out-of-doors, where its most common form is that of an earthwork.
Site-Specific Sculpture
Installation sculpture
Earthwork sculpture
Performance Sculpture

39. Installation and Site-Specific Art
Installation art introduces sculptural and other materials into a space in order to transform our experience of it.
Installations are works created to fill an interior architectural space.
Installations can be site-specific- that is, designed for a particular space.

40. Nancy Rubins, Pleasure Point, 2006
Nancy Rubins, Pleasure Point, Nautical vessels, stainless steel, stainless steel wire, and boats; 304 x 637 x 288 in.
Site-specific sculpture an assemblage of rowboats, canoes, jet skis, and surfboards

41. Anish Kapoor, Cloud Gate, 2004. Stainless steel, 33 ft. X 66 ft
Anish Kapoor, Cloud Gate, Stainless steel, 33 ft. X 66 ft. X 42 ft. Site-specific sculpture
Consists of 168 highly polished stainless steel plates seamlessly welded together

42. Angela Behrends, Sway, and detail, 2011. 365 glass vials each 3 in
Angela Behrends, Sway, and detail, glass vials each 3 in. tall, plaster, wild onion stalks, and 2 oscillating fans, dimensions variable. Installation

43. James Turrell, A Frontal Passage, Fluorescent light, 12 ft. 10 in. x 22 ft. 6 in. x 34 ft. Installation
Manipulation of light and space

44. James Turrell, The Light Inside , 1999
James Turrell, The Light Inside , Neon and ambient light , 132 x 246 x 1416 in.
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
Installation

45. Earthworks
Since the late 1960s, one of the focuses of modern sculpture has been the creation of large-scale out-of-doors environments, generally referred to as earthworks.
Earthworks are created to occupy exterior spaces.

46. Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty, April 1970. Great Salt Lake, Utah
Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty, April Great Salt Lake, Utah. Black rock, salt crystals, earth, red water (algae). 3 ½ ft. x 15 ft. x 1,500 ft. Earthwork

47. Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio. Hopewell culture, c
Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio. Hopewell culture, c. 600 BCE – 200 CE. Length approximately 1,254 ft. Earthwork

48. Nancy Holt, Sun Tunnels, Great Basin Desert, Utah, (four showing). Four tunnels, each 18 ft. long, 9 ft. 4 in. in diameter, each axis 86 ft. long. Site specific sculpture; earthwork

49. Nancy Holt, Sun Tunnels, one front view
Nancy Holt, Sun Tunnels, one front view. Site specific sculpture; earthwork

50. Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Over the River, Project for the Arkansas River, State of Colorado, Drawing in 2 parts (detail)
Earthwork

51. Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Over the River, Project for the Arkansas River, State of Colorado, Drawing in 2 parts (detail)
Earthwork
In 1992, artists announced plans to drape nearly 6 miles of silvery, luminous fabric panels above the Arkansas River. The fabric panels will be suspended for 2 weeks at 8 distinct areas of the river.
Why did they choose to drape the area between Salida and Canon City?
How is Over the River similar to sculpture-in-the-round?
In what ways is it similar to Anish Kapoor’s Cloud Gate?
What environmental issues does the work raise?

52. Performance Art as Living Sculpture
In performance art, the physical presence of the body in space becomes a primary concern.
Performance artists as akin to live sculptures.

53. Marina Abramović and Ulay, Imponderabilia, Performance at the Galleria Commundale d’Arte Moderna, Bologna, Italy, Performance art Visitors had to pass through the “living door.” What happens to the “space” that lies between these two artists? How is that specific space so very different to us on a psychological level when their bodies are present? What does this say about personal space?

54. Marina Abramović, The House with the Ocean View – Nov. 22 9:54 am, Living installation, November 15-26, Performance art The artist separated herself from the audience with three ladders with butcher’s knives for rungs– the space “in between” could not be bridged except at unthinkable risk. A metaphor for geopolitical daily realities, our separation from one another, and a call for change.