1. Personality Assessment

2. Measuring Personality Tests must be both reliable and valid Reliability: consistency, same results over period of time  Test-retest reliability  Internal consistency Validity: is the test measuring what it professes to measure; does it really measure personality? （ High R ≠High V Construct Validity ）  Face Validity 表面效度  Congruent Validity 相容效度  Discriminant Validity 判别效度  Behavioral Validity 行为效度

3. Personality Tests Purpose Observe and describe the structure and content of personality – the characteristic ways an individual thinks, feels, behaves, and interacts Clarifies  Diagnoses  Problematic patterns of behavior  Intra and interpersonal dynamics  Treatment implications Can be objective or projective

4. Measuring Personality & Psychological Functioning Objective testing  Specific questions or statements to which the person responds by using specific, fixed answers or a rating scale  Scores tabulated and compared to reference groups Projective testing  Ambiguous or unstructured stimuli to which client is asked to respond freely.  Unconscious or conscious needs, motives, interests, dynamics are projected onto ambiguous stimuli revealing internal dynamics or personality  More challenging to score and interpret than objective

5. Objective tests: Mark Which One Describes You Objective paper and pencil self-report forms Most commonly used - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2 ， 16pf, MBTI) Purpose: identify problem areas in functioning, perhaps requiring therapy Compare to norm group (with and without psychiatric disorders) Problem with MMPI-2: honesty of person in answering questions; validity scales built into test

6. Projective Tests: Tell Me What You See Projective tests: unstructured,relatively subjective measures of personality Derived from psychoanalytic perspective; unconscious urges/desires reflected on images Most famous Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Generally less reliable and valid in measuring personality New approach:More structured,More objective

7. The Projective Test: Hypothesis The projective hypothesis (Lawrence Frank, 1939): When people try to understand vague or ambiguous unstructured stimuli, the interpretation they produce reflects their needs, feelings, experience, prior conditioning, thought processes  Shakespeare, Hamlet, II.ii: "Nothing is either good or bad, but thinking makes it so."

8. Projective Tests:Types C. Jung(1905) Word Association 投射技術的類別： 1). 聯想技術 (association techniques) Rorschach, Word association 2). 結構技術 (construction techniques) TAT(Thematic Apperception Test) 3). 完成技術 (completion techniques) Sentence Completion Test 4). 表達技術 (expressive techniques) Projective Drawing

9. Two basic approaches to interpreting responses nomothetic 有依据的 establishing norms for answers from subjects in specific age, gender, racial, or educational level groups and then measuring a given subject's responses against those norms idiographic 独特的 evaluating the unique features of the subject's view of the world and relationships

10. Other means of measuring personality: Direct Observation and Rating Scales Direct observation  Observe what happens before and after response  Can help determine what environmental factors are related to behavior  Could compare ratings with actual behavior Rating scales: check off statements that apply  Completed by subject or someone else (teacher, parent)

11. Other means of measuring personality: Clinical Interviews Interviews can vary depending on orientation of interviewer Psychoanalytic: focus on childhood, dreams, etc. Humanist: client’s interpretation and perception of reality

12. Important projective tests Introuduction : Rorschach Inkblot Test

13. Rorschach Inkblot Test Hermann Rorschach (1884- 1922) Choice of art or science Time of Freud,Bleuler,Jung Dream convinced him of relationship between perception and unconscious

14. early tests Why, he wondered, might two people see entirely different things in the same inkblot? The medical student began showing inkblots to school children and analyzing their reactions. If gifted students fantasized more in their interpretations of inkblots than average students. Unfortunately, the results of these and the inkblots used have been lost.

15. He chose the symbolism of hallucinations as the topic for his doctoral dissertation. After he received his M.D. in 1912, Rorschach work in mental hospitals in Zurich. He stepped up his inkblot research, testing 300 mental patients and 100 "normal" persons. In 1921 his now famous work Psychodiagnostics, which set forth his methods of using inkblots to probe the unconscious, was published. 1921 published Psychodiagnostik Died in 1922

16. What is the Rorschach? The stimuli were generated by dropping ink onto a card and folding it  They are not, however, random: the ten cards in the current test were hand-selected out of thousands that Rorschach generated Ten blots – 5 black/white, 2 red/gray (II & III) and 3 color (VIII – X) – Figure 16-1 is Card I The following are the inkblots

20. Rorschach: Historical 5 Scoring Systems Adopted by 5 American psychologists with very different theoretical backgrounds Shared common features (same blots were used, reponse phase followed by inquiry) 5 different systems of administration, scoring and interpretation emerged Two most popular (Beck, Klopf)

21. Rorschach: Validity and Reliability Poor psychometric reputation: Lack of standardized rules for administration and scoring 缺乏标准化的操作和评分体系 Poor inter-rater reliability 评分者信度低 Lack of adequate norms 缺乏足够的常模 Unknown or weak validity 效度不清

23. Rorschach: Contemporary Use John Exner Established Rorschach Research Foundation in 1986 Integrated five scoring and interpretation systems Established empirical support for new system Provide a center for training

24. Contemporary Use: Administration Association Phase What might this be? Present all the cards Record response verbatim Note location of response Inquiry Phase I want you to help me see what you saw. I’m going to read what you said, and then I want you to show me where on the blot you saw it and what there is there that makes it look like that so that I can see it too. I’d like to see it just like you did, so help me now.

25. Administering the Rorschach

26. The test is usually administered with as little instruction and information as possible  The tester asks 'What might this be?' and gives no clues or restrictions on what is expected as a response  Anxious subjects often do ask questions, and vague answers are offered  Some advocate sitting beside the subject to avoid giving clues by facial expression  If only one response is given, some hint to find more may be offered: "Some people see more than one thing.“  The orientation of the card and subject RT is recorded

27. Administering the Rorschach The cards are shown twice  The first time responses are obtained - free association phase  The second time they are elaborated – inquiry phase

28. Location  When you respond to Rorschach images, you may focus on any of the following areas:  1- The whole areas of the inkblot pictures (W)  2- The common details of the Rorschach images (D)  3- The unusual details of the inkblot pictures (Dd)  4- White spaces of the inkblot pictures (S)White spaces  Whatever location you focus upon, counts differently for your personality analysis.

29. Determinants The determinants of your responses to the Rorschach images include: 1- Use of Shape or Outline of the Inkblot Picture (F) 2- Excellent Match of percept and the inkblot image (F+) 3- Poor Match of percept and the ink blot picture (F-) 4- Movement (M) 5- Color (C) 6- Texture (T) You know there are no movements in the cards themselves but you perceive such movements in your imaginations. Furthermore, you may visualize movements of animals, humans or abstract things.

30. Content The handling of content varies from one scoring system of the ink blot psychology to another. However, there are still some common features amongst all of them. The broad scoring categories include: 1- Human figures (H) 2- Body parts of the human figures (Hd) 3- Animal figures (A) 4- Animal details (Ad) 5- Plants (P) 6- Maps (M) 7- Clouds (Cl) 8- Blood (B) 9- X-Rays (Xy) 10- Sexual Objects 11- Symbols 12- Anatomical diagrams etc

31. Popularity Popularity, in the ink blot psychology, means how many people given the same kind of responses in any given session. When you give the same kind of responses, your answer is considered popular and is expressed with ‘P. However, when you give original, imaginative and creative responses, your answers are weighed in the section ‘O’.

32. Norm for Rorschach Inkblot Test Originally derived from a large number of adult groups. Ames, Metraux, Rodel and Walker collected and published Rorschach norms on children  Between the ages of 2 and 10 years  Adolescents between the ages of 10 and 16  Older person from 18 to the age of 70.

33. Scoring the Rorschach These quantitative measures can be validated  Percent of W responses has been linked to general intelligence (r = 0.4);  Movement responses are said to suggest strong impulses or high motor activity;  DW (confabulatory) responses are taken as signs of a disordered state;  low response rate is associated with mental retardation, depression, and defensiveness

34. TAT

35. Thematic Apperception Tests The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): 30 grayscale pictures + one blank for elicitation of stories – each contain a dramatic event or critical situation  Not all are (though all may be) seen by everyone: 11 for adult males/females, 7 adult males & boys (BM), 7 adult females & girls (GF), 1 each for adult males (12M), adult females (12F), children of either sex (12BG), male child (13B), female child (13G) and blank (16) Most subjects see 10-12 cards, over two sessions  Based on Murray's (1938) theory of 28 social needs (sex, affiliation, dominance, achievement etc.) Thema = Interaction between needs and environmental determinants Standardization of administration and scoring is minimal Many variations on this 'story-telling' test exist

36. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Developed by Henry Murray and colleagues at Harvard Psychological Clinic 31 TAT cards depicting people in a variety of ambiguous situations (one blank card) Examinee is asked to create a story about each picture

37. TAT: Psychometric Critique Selection of cards is not standardized Lack of norms Clinicians rely on qualitative impressions

45. TAT: Administration Now I want you to make up a story about each of these pictures. Tell me who the people are, what they are doing, what they are thinking or feeling, what led up to the scene, and how it will turn out.

46. scoring system original devised in 1943 by Henry Murray, attempted to account for every variable that it measures. Time- consuming and unwieldy,has been little used by later interpreters. Other scoring systems focus on one or two specific variables—for example, hostility or depression. Lack comprehensiveness. No single system presently used for scoring the TAT has achieved widespread acceptance

47. TAT: Scoring/Interpretation Content analysis of themes that emerge from the stories the feeling or tone of the stories; the subject‘s behaviors apart from responses. （ include verbal remarks ， nonverbal actions or signs blushing, stammering, fidgeting in the chair, difficulties making eye contact ）

48. The TAT could reveal subject's attitudes fantasies wishes inner conflicts view of the outside world The story structure typically reflects the subject's feelings, assumptions about the world, and an underlying attitude of optimism or pessimism

49. Bellak & Abram(1997) TAT Scoring Procedures 1). Main theme 2). Main hero/heroine 3). Main needs and drives of the hero/heroine 4). Conception of the environment (world) 5). Figures seen as …. 6). Significant conflicts

50. 7). Nature of anxieties 8). Main defenses against conflicts and fears 9). Adequacy of superego as manifested by “punishment” for “crime” 10). Integration of the ego

51. Murray ’ s TAT Scoring - Needs n Abasement n Achievement n Acquisition n Affiliation n Aggression n Autonomy n Blamavoidance n Cognizance n Creation n Deference n Dominance n Excitance n Exposition n Harmavoidance n Intraggression n Intranurturance n Nurturance n Sex n Succorance

52. Murray ’ s TAT Scoring – Inner States Conflict Emotional Change Dejection Other: Anxiety, Exaltation, Distrust, Jealousy

53. Projective drawing

54. Interpretations 1). Sequence 2). Position of the first drawing 3). Use of space 4). Collision 5). Shift in the position of the paper 6). Closure difficulty 7). Crossing difficulty

55. 8). Curvature difficulty 9). Change in angulation 10). Perceptual rotation 11). Retrogression 12). Simplification 13). Fragmentation 14). Overlapping difficulty 15). Elaboration or doodling 16). Perseveration 17). Redrawing of the total figure

56. Common projective tests House-Tree-Person Test (Buck, 1948) & Draw-A-Person (Machover, 1949): Subject is asked to draw  Scoring is on absolute size, relative size of elements, omissions

57. The two-way projection problem "Objectivity in human relationships is impossible. Therapists affect the behaviour and feelings of patients, and patients affect therapists. When a chart notes that a patient is 'hostile', it should also note, in the interests of balance, that the therapist is 'paranoid'. If a therapist calls a patient 'defensive', chances are that the patient would call the therapist 'aggressive'. Both should be noted in a chart, if either is, since both are equally probable. " Shelagh Lynne Supeene As For The Sky, Falling