1. SHALL has some interesting characteristics! It is often used in the first person where it replaces will Eg. « I shall set out tomorrow morning » « I will set out » has a greater connotation of what one has decided to do, what one wants to do ( WILL= volonté) It makes sense to use it for a suggestion or proposal in the first person plural, question form: Eg « Shall we go for a walk this afternoon? » In the 2nd and 3rd person, it is usually highly formal, and can express : Something imperative, « You shall do as I say! » Here strong subordination is intended, as when a mother speaks to a child Something belonging to a higher order, like a prophecy, over and above me « We shall overcome, one one day » (Negro spiritual) « We shall prevail » Something contractual, « the equipement shall be compliant with the latest norms » In the negative form, shall also expresses very formal and solemn imperatives, or prohibition: eg « you shall not kill » « you shall not commit adultery » Shall Ought to/ should Will 12A 2014 15 Modals would

2. I - WOULD is used in the following hypothetical sentences: Eg. « This principle would be fatal to the world, if it prevailed », « If this principle were established, our freedoms would be in danger ». (NB today we might say « if this principle was established », but the point is that the tense is not a real preterit. This form subsists in the construction « if I were you » However, WOULD is also used in A) reported speech: Eg. « He said he would come » ( reported form of « I will come ») It is used for « frequentative » or habitual verbs Eg. « he would come every morning to check his experiment » Or. « He would insist on his being called by his full name » (NB In such expressions, we see the link with the auxiliary will », expressing a subject’s will ) B) in polite forms: Eg. « I would like to fix an appointment with you » « as I would wish to do »…. 22A 2014 15 Modals

3. II – WOULD is not always used for constructions to express possibility The question is : is there a real condition? Is there an implicit or explicit « IF » clause? E.g 1. « According to the statistics, people would be making choices in line with their culture ». ???? What is meant here? This should be rephrased as : « people seem to be making choices in accordance with their culture » Eg 2 « Although we are not sure, there would be 12 killed in the accident » What is the condition here ????? There is none, so : « although we are not sure 12 people seem to have been killed » It is not used when the hypothesis expresses a certain result, as long as the condition is fulfilled: Eg. « if I drop the test tube, it breaks ». « If the King resigns, there is a constitutional issue » There is also another type of conditional, which expresses possibility about the past: « If the King had not resigned, the war effort would have been different » 32A 2014 15 Modals

4. MAY expresses another kind of possibility, neutral with respect as to what may or may not happen Eg « It may be some time before I return to Britain » MAY is also used to express permission: This is often in question form; May I smoke here? This is evidently different from « can I smoke ?», which would be – technically - a question about ability, not possibility... MAY is also used for wishes: Eg.« may you have a pleasant journey » « may He bless and keep us all » 42A 2014 15 Modals might may can

5. « Possibility » comes in many variations: in the past, it may express reproach: Eg « You might have phoned me to tell me in advance! » Also in the past, a distinction must be made between : « he may have been killed » « he might have been killed » It may also express ability, in which case it is better to use the verb « to be able to » Eg. « He could apply for a job » ( confusion with condionals : « he could if what??) « He was able to apply for a job…. » Might Could May : Can/ Be able to Would (if…?) 52A 2014 15 Modals

6. Obligation in the past can acquire a different meaning, for example deduction. There are always synonyms, if ambiguity arises from this: Eg 1. He must be a doctor OR : He can’t be a doctor Which is different from : Eg 2. He had to qualify as a doctor Could May : Ought to/ should Can Would (if…?) Will 6 Must/ Have to 2A 2014 15 Modals

7. SHOULD expresses many things too Recommendation, advice or opinon about what is preferable In this it differs form OUGHT TO, which is more neutral. Eg « I should see a lawyer about this » ( I personally think so) « You ought to pass your driving test before going » ( it is the rule anyway) It expresses probability too « I should rain tomorrow » (= it is likely to rain tomorrow) However, it may express regret in the past « I should have phoned him » Also, it has a connection with the first person, like SHALL, in the following : « I should be sorry to see you go », in this case it is a polite form like WOULD « should this hapen, I will come back » « I should never have allowed it » Also, it can refer to a possibility, leaving options open, but the construction is with an inversion modal/subject: « Should you need my help, I shall come » Ought to/ should Can Would (if…?) 72A 2014 15 Modals

8. 8 Form in the present PASTQUESTIONNEGATIONRhetorical effect meaning MIGHTIt might be possible, it might happen It might have been, It might have happened Might it be done? Might it happen? It might not be possible, it might not happen Might it not have been done??? The possibility is weakened, it is a toned down version of MAT MAYHe may come back ( 50/ 50 chance) He may have come back ( I have no idea) May he be back? This is similar to could he be back? He may not be back This is fairly neutral MAY also expresses permission WOULDIt would be done IF… It would have been done if … Would it be done If I gave yo u permission? It would not be done This is a conditional form, this condition may be implicit, or it could be a polite form COULD Conditional and Past or CAN (ability) It could be done, if …. It could have been done (if….) It is possible that it happened Could it be done, before? Were you able to do it? It could not be done, even if … He was not able to do it Careful to distinguish between past and conditional SHOULDShould you wish to have further information Should you have been in need, I would have helped I should have done this (regret) Not usedShould you not wish to sign, I will In the 1st person, it tends to replace WOULD « Éventualité » In case this should happen I should have phoned him is regret not possibility! OUGHT TOI ought to have the engine repaired I ought to have had it repaired Ought I to have it repaired? Ought I not have it repaired (rare and formal) « POSSIBILITY » in English