Download presentation
1
Chapter 08 Bacterial Genetics 김하원교수 1 1
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1
2
A Glimpse of History Barbara McClintock (1902–1992, 91세)
옥수수 알갱이의 색갈이 비규칙적으로 유전됨을 관찰 DNA segment가 color를 나타내는 유전자에 삽입과 탈락한다고 결론냄. 1950에 논문 투고하였으나 거절당함. 논문제목 "The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize" Met with skepticism 1953년: 왓슨과 클릭의 DNA구조 발표(DNA는 안정한데 왠 이탈?) 1970년대 들어 idea를 인정받음. 세균에서도 유전자 이탈 동물에서도 유전자 이동현상 암발생 원인도 유전자 이동 드디어 이론을 인정받음 !!! 1983년에 Nobel Prize 받음. 최초의 여성단독 노벨상 Transposon이라 명명함. “Jumping genes”
3
심화학습Transposable element (TE, 전이유전자)
TE: 이기적인 유전자기생충(selfish DNA parasites)으로 간주되어 virus와 유사(따라서 TE와 virus는 조상이 같을 수도 있다). 세균: 염색체에 삽입된 TE와 virus 제거위해 gene deletion이 발달되어있음. 진핵생물: TE 제거위해 RNAi 가 발달되어 있음. 종류: Class I (Retrotransposon): copy and paste (DNA→ RNA → DNA 복사물) Class II (DNA transposon): cut and paste 발견예 옥수수: 유전자의 85%가 TE유전자다. 색깔변화 다양 초파리: P elements를 가지고 있다. 세균: 항생제 내성유전자를 전달 인간: Alu sequence(300 bp가 500,000회 나타남, 후손에게 전달됨: 공통조상, 친자소송에 이용, X 염색체에 삽입시 혈우병유발) 인체관련 질병유발: hemophilia, severe combined immunodeficiency, cancer 진화유발: 염색체에 반복서열 삽입 항체다양성 기전: V(D)J recombination system 응용: Sleeping Beauty transposon (잠자는미녀 TE): 합성DNA transposon 으로써 염색체에 유전자를 삽입하여 형질을 발현시키는 전이유전자. Gene therapy(혈우병 치료 등) 에 응용.
4
Antibiotic Resistance
Staphylococcus aureus 그람양성 구균, 피부와 상처감염균 독소분비(식중독): Toxic shock syndrome toxin(TSST), superantigen으로 작용 1970년대부터 methicillin으로 치료함. 2004년에는 병원의 S. aureus는 60% 이상이 methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) 임. 건강한 사람도 MRSA 소유함. MRSA 종류 Healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA); 병원유래 MRSA Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA): 병원이외에서 유래한 MRSA VRSA: vancomycin-resistant S. aureus Vancomycin considered drug of last resort MRSA로 감염된 피부 Methicillin 구조식
5
8.1. Genetic Change in Bacteria
Organisms adapt to changing environments Natural selection: 새로운 환경적응에 유리함 세균의 환경적응 Regulation of gene expression (Chapter 7) Genetic change (Chapter 8) 유전학 연구시 세균의 장점 Rapid growth, large numbers More known about E. coli genetics than any other Genotype (유전자형) 세균은 haploid이므로 유전자를 한 벌만 가지고 있음 (no backup) Phenotype (표현형) Also influenced by environmental conditions
6
8.1. Genetic Change in Bacteria
Mutation and horizontal gene transfer Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Spontaneous mutation in genome Vertical gene transfer (a) Mutation Plasmid transfer Vertical gene transfer (b) Horizontal gene transfer
7
8.1. Genetic Change in Bacteria
Mutations can change organism’s phenotype Trp 합성유전자 상실시 배지에 Trp첨가해야 됨 Auxotroph (영양요구균) Auxo = “increase”; troph = “nourishment” Prototroph (원영양균) does not require growth factors Proto = “first” Geneticists compare mutants to wild type 변형균주는 약어로 표시 E.g., Trp– cannot make tryptophan Streptomycin resistance designated StrR
8
8.2. Spontaneous Mutations
저빈도, random하게 돌연변이 일어남. 빈도: 10–4 and 10–12 for a given gene 후손에게 전달 원 상태로 복귀도 함 (reversion)
9
8.2. Spontaneous Mutations
Base substitution 가장 빈번함. 다른 염기로 치환된 것. Point mutation: 1개의 염기가 치환 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5' 3' 3' 5' DNA strand separation 5' 3' DNA replication 3' 5' DNA replication, an incorrect nucleotide is incorporated 5' 3' 5' 3' Base substitution 3' 5' 3' 5' Wild type DNA strand separation 5' 3' DNA replication, generating a mutation 3' 5' DNA replication 5' 3' 5' 3' 3' 5' 3' 5' Mutant Wild type
10
8.2. Spontaneous Mutations
Base substitution : 3가지 Silent mutation: 동일 AA Missense mutation: 다른 AA Resulting protein may only partially function Termed leaky Nonsense mutation: stop codon Yields shorter protein Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5' • • • • • • 3' T G T • • • • • • • • • • • • DNA A C A • • • • • • 3' 5' T G T T G C T G G T G A A C A A C G A C C A C T Mutation U G U U G C U G G U G A Transcribed codon Cysteine Cysteine Tryptophan Stop codon Amino acid translated Wild type Silent mutation Missense mutation Nonsense mutation Outcome
11
8.2. Spontaneous Mutations
Base substitutions Null (or knockout) mutation: 유전자 기능을 상실한 경우 Silent mutation: 단백질기능이 그대로 유지되는 경우 호기성균은 염기치환을 잘 일으킨다. ROS가 G를 산화시켜 Gox로 만들어 G-C대신에 Gox-A 쌍을 만듦.
12
8.2. Spontaneous Mutations
염기의 탈락 또는 삽입 염기 3개 변화: 1개의 AA 변화 염기 1개 2개의 변화: frameshift Often results in premature stop codon Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Wild type 5' 3' C G G T A C G T T A A A DNA G C C A T G C A A T T T 3' 5' 5' 3' C G G U A C G U U A A A Transcribed codons Arginine Tyrosine Valine Lysine Amino acids translated Mutant Base pair addition 5' 3' C G G A T A C G T T A A A DNA G C C T A T G C A A T T T 3' 5' 5' 3' C G G A U A C G U U A A Transcribed codons Arginine Isoleucine Arginine Stop Amino acids translated Frameshift의 예
13
8.2. Spontaneous Mutations
Transposons (jumping genes) Can move from one location to another Process is transposition Gene insertionally inactivated Function destroyed Most transposons have transcriptional terminators Blocks expression of downstream genes in operon Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Transposition Transposable element Gene X Gene X disrupted
14
8.2. Spontaneous Mutations
Transposon by Barbara McClintock 옥수수 색유전자에 transposon이 삽입/탈락하여 다양한 알갱이 색이 나타남을 발견. “내가 옥수수 세포 속에 들어가면 옥수수와 나는 하나가 된다.” 노벨상 소감: “난 이미 옥수수로부터 모든 기쁨을 얻었다.”
15
8.3. Induced Mutations (돌연변이 유발)
돌연변이 유발방법 Mutagen 사용: chemical, radiation
16
8.3. Induced Mutations Chemical mutagens : 염기치환 또는 틀이동 유발
Some chemicals modify nucleobases 염기의 구조식 변화 그 결과, 염기쌍의 변화 유발 예: Nitrous acid (HNO2) converts cytosine to uracil
17
(sometimes pairs with T)
8.3. Induced Mutations 염기 구조식 변화(cont…) Alkylating agents: 염기에 alkyl group을 추가함. 예: Nitrosoguanidine: G에 methyl group을 추가함. G*는 T와 결합함. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hydrogen bonds formed With complementary bases CH3 Added alkyl group O O N H N N N H H H H N N N N N N Alkylating agent H deoxyribose H deoxyribose Guanine (pairs with C) Methylguanine (sometimes pairs with T) (a) Nitroso- guanidine treatment Wild type Mutant 3' 3' DNA replication 5' 3' DNA replication 5' 3' 5' 5' A G T A G * T A G * T A A T T C A T C A T T A T T T A 3' 5' 3' 5' 3' 5' 3' 5' Guanine (G) is converted to methylguanine (G*) Methylguanine of template strand pairs with thymine (T) instead of cytosine (C) Thymine (formerly paired with G*) now serves as template and pairs with adenine (A) (b)
18
8.3. Induced Mutations Base analogs (염기유사체) 수소결합 갯수가 달라짐. 다른 염기가 삽입됨.
예: 5-Bromouracil (T 와 유사): A 또는 C와 결합함. 2-Amino purine (A 와 유사): T 또는 C와 결합함. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Normal nucleobase Analog O O H3C 6 H Br H 6 5 1 N N Replaced by 5 1 4 2 3 4 2 3 N O N O H H Thymine (pairs with A) 5-bromouracil (pairs with A or C) H H N N 7 6 N 5 1 N 7 6 N 5 8 1 Replaced by 9 4 2 H 3 8 4 2 9 N N N 3 H H N N H H 2-amino purine (pairs with T or C) Adenine (pairs with T)
19
8.3. Induced Mutations Intercalating agents : 틀이동을 유발함.
2개의 염기 사이에 끼어들어감. 예: Ethidium bromide (EtBr): carcinogen 가능성 Chloroquine: 말라리아 치료제
20
8.3. Induced Mutations Transposition
Transposons can be used to generate mutations Transposon inserts into cell’s genome Generally inactivates gene into which it inserts Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Transposition Transposable element Gene X Gene X disrupted
21
8.3. Induced Mutations Radiation (방사선) UV: thymine dimer 형성함 X rays:
UV에 의한 T-T dimer 형성 Radiation (방사선) UV: thymine dimer 형성함 인접한 T끼리 공유결합. 이중나선에서 뒤틀림현상 나타남. 복제 또는 전사시 뒤틀린 부분에서 머뭇거림. Repair 하지 않으면 세포는 죽음. SOS repair mechanism으로 목숨은 건져도 돌연변이 형태로 됨. X rays: DNA의 한가닥 또는 두가닥 절단 두가닥 절단시 치명적임. 피부화상 노화 피부암 Sugar-phosphate backbone Ultraviolet light Thymine Thymine dimer Covalent bonds
22
UV Damage by Sunlight 식물은 햇볕에 죽지 않고 돌연변이로 다양성 식물은 항산화제를 만들어 자신을 보호함.
23
8.4. Repair of Damaged DNA DNA의 손상 Repair하지 않으면 세포사멸 또는 암발생
E.g., in humans, two breast cancer susceptibility genes code for DNA repair enzymes; mutations in either result in 80% probability of breast cancer 손상된 DNA 는 대개 repair되어 후손에 전달되지 않음. DNA repair mechanism: 여러가지 있음.
24
8.4. Repair of Damaged DNA
25
Repair of Errors in Nucleotide Incorporation
DNA repair(2가지 기전): proofreading, mismatch repair Proofreading by DNA polymerase Verifies accuracy Can back up, excise nucleotide Incorporate correct nucleotide Very efficient but not flawless
26
Repair of Errors in Nucleotide Incorporation
2. Mismatch Repair Fixes errors missed by DNA polymerase Excise Unmethylation 가닥이 새로 합성된 것임. DNA polymerase, DNA ligase make repairs Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Template strand 1 CH3 CH3 5′ 3′ The wrong nucleotide is incorporated during DNA synthesis. C T A A G C T G A G G A T T T G A C T C 3′ 5′ Newly synthesized strand CH3 CH3 2 5′ 3′ Near the site of the mismatched base, an enzyme cuts the sugar-phosphate backbone of the unmethylated strand. C T A A G C T G A G G A T T T G A C T C 3′ 5′ Cut CH3 CH3 3 5′ 3′ An enzyme degrades a short stretch of the strand that had the error. C T A A G C T G A G G A C T C 3′ 5′ 4 CH3 CH3 5′ 3′ DNA polymerase synthesizes a new stretch, incorporating the correct nucleotide. C T A A G C T G A G G A T T C G A C T C 3′ 5′ 5 CH3 CH3 5′ 3′ DNA ligase joins the 3′ end of the newly synthesized segment to the original strand. C T A A G C T G A G G A T T C G A C T C 3′ 5′ DNA ligase
27
Repair of Modified Nucleobases in DNA
변형된 염기의 수선 Glycosylase가 산화된 염기 제거 염기결실 위치에 효소가 절단 DNA polymerase가 주변을 절단 제거 및 합성 DNA ligase가 최종 연결 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 5' 3' DNA contains oxidized guanine (G–O) as a result of oxidation damage. C T A A G – O C T G A T T C G A 3' 5' 2 5' 3' Glycosylase removes the oxidized nucleobase from the sugar-phosphate backbone. C T A A C T G A T T C G A 3' 5' 3 Cut 5' 3' At the site of the missing nucleobase, an enzyme cuts the sugar-phosphate backbone. C T A A C T G A T T C G A 3' 5' 3' 4 5' C T C T DNA polymerase degrades a short stretch of the strand. G A T T C G A 3' 5' 5 5' 3' The combined actions of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase fill in and seal the gap. C T A A G C T G A T T C G A 3' 5'
28
Repair of Thymine Dimers
UV손상 수선기전 Photoreactivation(광활성화): light repair Enzyme이 빛에너지 이용함. Thymine dimer의 공유결합 절단. Only found in bacteria Excision repair(절단수선): dark repair Enzyme이 손상부위 제거 DNA polymeras와 DNA ligase가 수선 종결. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Photoreactivation Covalent bonds 5' 3' Thymine dimer distorts the DNA molecule. G C G A T T G A C G C G C T A A C T G C 3' 5' 5' 3' An enzyme uses visible light to break the covalent bond of the thymine dimer, restoring the DNA to its original state. G C G A T T G A C G C G C T A A C T G C 3' 5' Excision repair Covalent bonds 5' 3' Thymine dimer distorts the DNA molecule. G C G A T T G A C G C G C T A A C T G C 3' 5' Cut Cut G A T T G A 5' 3' An enzyme removes the damaged section by cutting the DNA backbone on either side of the thymine dimer. G C C G C G C T A A C T G C 3' 5' 5' 3' The combined actions of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase fill in and seal the gap. G C G A T T G A C G C G C T A A C T G C 3' 5'
29
Photoreactivation
30
기타 UV손상 수선기전 SOS repair: 최후의 방법
DNA damage가 많을 경우에 작동함. Photoreactivation 또는 excision repair로 수선 불가능할 때 작동함. DNA pol 과 RNA pol가 unrepaired site에서 머뭇거림. 수많은 유전자가 활성화됨. DNA polymerase를 과량 발현하여 수선에 관여. Proofreading능력 없으므로 error가 많음 그 결과 SOS 돌연변이가 일어남. SOS 기전 LexA는 repressor로써 SOS gene의 발현을 억제함. T=T dimer 생기면 RecA활성화되어 LexA를 분해함. LexA repressor가 분해되면 uvrABC endonuclease가 과량 발현되어 excision repair로 T=T dimer를 제거함.
Similar presentations
© 2025 SlidePlayer.com. Inc.
All rights reserved.