2. I. Bureaucracy in Modern Government: Bureaucracy – is a large, complex organization of appointed, not elected, officials. From the French “bureau,” meaning small desk. It literally means “government with small desk.

3. Basic characteristics; (Max Weber) Hierarchical authority structure – the top bureaucrat has ultimate control, and authority flows from the top down. Task specialization – a clear division of labor in which every individual has a specialized job. Extensive rules – clearly written, well- established formal rules that all people in the organization follow.

4. Clear goals – a clearly defined set of goals that all people in the organization strive toward. The merit principle – no granting of jobs to friends or family unless they are the best qualified. Impersonality – job performance that is judged by productivity.

5. Characteristics of the American Bureaucracy; Divided supervision – both Congress and officials in the executive branch have authority over the bureaucracy. This divided authority encourages bureaucrats to play one branch of government against the other.

6. Close public scrutiny – the emphasis in American political culture on individual rights and their defense against abuse by government makes court challenges to agency actions more likely. Regulation rather than public ownership – U.S. government agencies regulate privately owned enterprises, rather than operate publicly owned one.

7. II. Growth of the Bureaucracy: The federal bureaucracy began in 1789 when Congress created the Department of State (headed by Thomas Jefferson.) In 1829, President Andrew Jackson employed the spoils system to reward party loyalists with key federal posts.

8. Critics argued that it allowed people with little knowledge and background to be appointed to important government positions. Pendleton Act – set up a limited merit system for appointed federal offices. Civil Service Commission – supervised a testing program to evaluate candidates.

9. The Civil Service Commission split into two agencies in 1978: –The Office of Personnel Management – it administers civil service laws, rules, and regulations, as well as the hiring of most agencies. –The Merit Systems Protection Board – it protects the integrity of the federal merit system and the rights of federal employees.

10. Whereas the number of employees of state and local governments has grown tremendously in the past fifty years, the number of federal employees has remained a relatively constant three percent of all civilian jobs.

11. III. Who are Bureaucrats? Bureaucrats work in fourteen cabinet-level departments and more than fifty independent agencies. A total of 3.2 million civilians and 1.8 million military are employed by the executive branch of the federal government. The permanent bureaucracy today is more representative of the American people than are members of Congress.

12. Statistics for federal civilian employees; 57% are male, 43% are female 73% are white, 27% are minority 33% are hired by the Defense Department, 26% by the Postal Service, and 41% in other agencies. Only about 10% work in Washington Average age is 42 There are 10 federal employees for every 1,000 citizens Most are white-collar workers

13. IV. Organization of the Bureaucracy: A)Cabinet Departments; Department of State (1789) Department of Treasury (1789) Department of Defense (1789) Department of Justice (1789) Department of the Interior (1849) Department of Agriculture (1862)

14. Department of Commerce (1903) Department of Labor (1913) Department of Health and Human Services (1953) Department of Housing and Urban Development (1966) Department of Transportation (1966) Department of Energy (1977) Department of Education (1979) Department of Veterans Affairs (1988) Department of Homeland Security (2002)

15. Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (2004) – created a position for a Director of National Intelligence, and placed 15 intelligence agencies under his/her control. It also created a National Counterterrorism Center to serve as the primary organization that processes all terrorism-related intelligence.

16. B) Independent Regulatory Agencies; These agencies regulate the economy, and make rules for industries and businesses that affect the interest of the public. –The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) – regulates railroads, and trucking. –The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) – regulates business practices and controls monopolies.

17. The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) – regulates labor-management relations. The Federal Reserve Board (Fed) – governs banks and regulates the supply of money. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) – polices the stock market.

18. C) Government Corporations; A blend of private corporation and government agency. They have more control over their budgets, and often have the right to decide how to use their own earnings.

19. The Corporation for Public Broadcasting – operates public radio and television stations. The Tennessee Valley Authority – its mission is to harness the power of the Tennessee River to protect farmlands and provide cheap electricity. The U.S. Postal Service – competes with private services for nations mail. Amtrak – provides railroad passenger service.

20. D) Independent Executive Agencies; Agencies that closely resemble Cabinet departments, but they are smaller and less complex. They have narrower areas of responsibilities, but are still subject to presidential control.

21. The General Services Administration (GSA) – operates and maintains federal properties, handling buildings, supplies, and purchases. The National Science Foundation (NSF) – supports scientific research. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) – administers the U.S. space program.

22. V. What do Bureaucrats Do? Discretionary authority – making policy and choosing actions that are not spelled out in advanced by laws. The power of the bureaucracy depends on how much discretionary authority they have.

23. Implementation – taking a policy that is handed down from Congress, the president, or the Court, and actually putting it into effect. Congress often sets general goals and passes the responsibility for interpretation on to the bureaucrats. As a result, the bureaucracy is given latitude in translating general guidelines into specific directives.

24. Regulation – agencies receive grants of power from Congress, then they develop a set of guidelines to govern an industry. Munn v. Illinois (1877) – upheld the right of a government agency to regulate private businesses.

25. VI. Accountability: A)Congressional Oversight; Duplication – Congress rarely gives any one job to a single agency, thus keeping any one agency from becoming all powerful. Authorization – Congress must authorize all agency budgets. Congress usually cuts agency budgets from the levels authorized. –Appropriation – is money formally set aside for a specific use.

26. Hearings – Congressional committees may hold hearings so that agency abuses may be questioned publicly. Rewriting legislation – Congress may rewrite legislation or make it more detailed. The more detailed the instructions, the better able Congress is to restrict the agency’s power.

27. B) Presidential Oversight; Appointments – the president appoints the senior bureaucrats (agency heads and subheads.) If a president disagrees with the policy of an agency, he can appoint a head that agrees with him.

28. Executive Orders – a president may issue executive orders to agencies that they must obey. Economic powers – the president may exercise authority through the Office of Management and the Budget, which is the president’s own final authority on any agency’s budget. Reorganization – the president may reorganize or combine agencies to reward or punish them.

29. VII. Interest Groups: How interest groups influence agencies; 1.They may provide agencies with valuable information they need to execute a policy. 2.They may pressure agencies to interpret policy favorable to their interest. 3.Bureaus may recruit interest groups as allies in pursuing a common goal.

30. A) Iron Triangles; Iron triangles – alliances among bureaucrats, interest groups, and congressional subcommittee members to promote a common cause.

31. Agency Interest Group Congressional Subcommittee

32. –The interest group provides information and campaign support to the subcommittee, and supports budget request of the agency. –The subcommittee pass legislation supporting the interest group, and supports higher budgets for the agency. –The agency give information to the subcommittee and helps with constituents’ complaints, and develops rules that help the interest group.

33. B) Issue Networks; Issue Network – consist of people in interest groups, on congressional staff, in universities, and in the mass media who regularly debate an issue. The network is full of arguments and disagreements occurring along partisan, ideological, and economic lines. Agency heads are often chosen as someone within the network who agrees with the president’s views.

34. VIII. Reforming the Bureaucracy: The Hatch Act (1939) – forbids federal employees from engaging in political party activities. In 1993 Congress softened the Hatch Act by allowing federal bureaucrats to be active in party politics, but they still cannot run as candidates in elections.

35. A) Criticism of the Bureaucracy; Red tape – the maze of government rules, regulations, and paperwork. Conflict – agencies often work at cross purposes with one another. Duplication – two or more agencies appear to be doing the same thing.

36. –Unchecked growth – agencies tend to grow unnecessarily and cost more. –Waste – agencies spend more on products and/or services than is necessary. –Lack of accountability – it is difficult to fire or demote an incompetent bureaucrat.

37. B) Suggestions for Reform; Limiting appointments to 6-12 years, the bureaucrat would then have to go through reexamination and their performance would be reviewed for possible rehire. Making it easier to fire a bureaucrat, would cut down on poor performance.

38. –Rotating professionals between agencies and from outside, would bring new blood to agencies and encourage workers to get a broader view of government service. –Rewarding employee initiatives and fewer rules, would increase productivity and efficiency. –Emphasizing customer satisfaction, unlike private businesses government agencies do not have to compete for customers.

39. The End!