1. Napoleon Bonaparte

2. Europe’s Monarchies Oppose the Revolution Austria, Britain, and Prussia send troops to try to overthrow the French Republic and restore the monarchy. France organizes a peasant army to oppose them. France suffers from an early lack of leadership, most of the experienced officers are aristocrats and have been killed or removed from command.

3. Napoleon In 1793, a young artillery officer comes to the attention of Robespierre. He is smart, charismatic, and supports the Revolution. He is quickly promoted to Brigadier General and helps push back the First Coalition.

4. Le General Napoleon is briefly arrested after the fall of Robespierre, but is too useful to get rid of. In 1796 is put in command of all of France’s armies. By 1797, the monarchies have signed a peace treaty.

5. Power Vacuum In 1798, as Napoleon struggles with the British, Austria rejoins the war. Russia, worried that the Revolution might spread, joins in. The Directory seems unable to maintain control and defend France. Abbe Sieyes persuades Napoleon that France needs a strong leader.

6. Coup d'État Napoleon forces the French legislature to abolish the Directory and name him one of three Consuls. Napoleon proclaims himself First Consul and effectively becomes dictator of France in 1799. He quickly has a new constitution drawn up giving him near absolute power. The new constitution is put to a public vote in 1800. Why do the people of France vote to approve it?

7. Reform While Napoleon was a dictator, he began his rule using his power to benefit France. He created a more fair tax code, a national bank to stabilize the economy and made loans to help business restart. He set up public schools so all classes could more easily become part of the government, allowing him to replace corrupt or incompetent officials with honest and able ones. He established the Napoleonic Code—a legal code less dependent on the rulings of judges and kings. He also normalized relations with the Catholic Church (while keeping the lands that had been seized in the Revolution).

8. Emperor By 1804, Napoleon was growing worried about attempts to restore the French monarchy. Arguing that it would be more difficult replace a sitting monarch, Napoleon convinced the Senate and the French people to adopt another new constitution. Napoleon chose to call himself Emperor rather than King to separate himself from the old regime and as an allusion to ancient Rome. At his coronation, Napoleon crowns himself, rather than allowing the Pope to do it. Why?

9. Empire Napoleon spends most of the next nine years at war, at the height of his power controlling most of Europe. It is during this period that the Napoleonic code spreads to most of the nations of Europe. It remains the founding principle of most of the world’s legal systems.

10. Three Great Blunders Napoleon makes three mistakes in his campaign to conquer all of Europe. The Continental System—attempts to embargo Britain, but Europe has too much coast to enforce the ban. The Peninsular Campaign—Napoleon invades Spain and Portugal resulting in a guerilla campaign against him. The invasion of Russia—Napoleon sets out to invade Russia in June of 1812, ultimately leading to his defeat.

11. Able was I ere I saw Elba. Napoleon is defeated in 1814 and exiled to the island of Elba. He is replaced by the brother of Louis XVI, who is so unpopular that Napoleon is able to stage a comeback in 1815. For the Hundred Days he is free, Napoleon tries to restore his control of France. He is finally defeated by the British and Russians at Waterloo.

12. The Congress of Vienna The monarchs and Foreign Ministers of the victorious allies met in Vienna to try to prevent another general war. They tried to weaken France and establish a balance of power—so that no country was strong enough to threaten its neighbors. They also tried to restore the monarchies that had been set aside by Napoleon.