1. X. MEMORY

2. A. Memory as an information processing system. n 1. Computer metaphor... n 2. 4 steps or components. n a. Attention: (info is remembered only if it is noticed.) b. Encoding: getting info into memory. c. Storage: keeping encoded info in memory. d. Retrieval: getting info out of memory.

3. B. Overall process.

4. C. Sensory Memory n Where we initially record sensory input or stimuli into memory. n Stores ALL stimuli that senses register n Holds LITERAL copies of those stimuli but for fraction of second to 3 seconds

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6. n How many letters can you recall? n Did information NEVER register? –(We can only register so much info. at once). n Or – did the image fade before you had to report letters?

7. MXO C WU QPS MXO C WU QPS

8. RYI DHP ZEB RYI DHP ZEB

9. C. Sensory Memory n 1. Iconic Memory: Fleeting photographic memory (visual stimuli). n 2. Echoic Memory: Fleeting auditory memory (sound). –Why do we need sensory memory?

10. D. Short Term Memory n 1. Description: n Stores info from sensory memory before it’s forgotten or is put into Long-Term Memory. n To get info from sensory memory to short term memory: –Only info that we pay attention to n But – we have limited attentional resources – so short term memory is limited.

11. D. Short Term Memory n 2. Has limited capacity. (7 +- 2) – only small amount of info from sensory memory is transferred to short term memory n 2. Has limited duration. –10-15 seconds n To get info from sensory to short term – so that it can be put into long term memory: –Use rehearsal/repetition: keep attention on stimuli. (say numbers over and over again or visualize them) –Use tricks to group info to increase capacity.

12. n 1 8 9 2 n 3 0 1 9 4 n 8 3 0 1 1 2 n 6 8 2 4 0 1 2 n 2 9 1 0 7 6 3 8 n 5 3 7 9 0 1 2 4 6

13. B. Overall process.

14. D. Short Term Memory n 3. Comparison to working memory. –More “active” version of short term memory. –Focus on attention part. –Two major systems: verbal sounds, visual/spatial –Filter out unimportant info, focus on important info.

15. E. Long Term Memory n 1. Description: - The stored representation of all that a person knows. - Has unlimited capacity. - Is long-lasting. n 2. Encoding: how we get info from ST to LT memory.

16. E. Long Term Memory 2. Encoding n a. Rehearsal: conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus’ research - rehearsed nonsense syllables. (BAZ FUB TUV LEQ VUM) - more rehearsed – more remembered. -is effective in getting info from ST to LT memory? -Spacing rehearsal over time

17. E. Long Term Memory 2. Encoding n b. Elaboration: Rehearse/understand info at deeper level. How? i. Differences in how info is encoded. –Craik & Tulving (1975) »visual »acoustic »semantic (meaning) Use images/stories Use images/stories

18. E.Long Term Memory 2. Encoding i. Differences in what/how info is encoded. –Self-Reference Effect: Tend to remember things that are related to ourselves better.

19. E. Long Term Memory 2. Encoding n ii. Using organization to better encoding. –Chunking: put information into meaningful units or chunks. –Hierarchies: Chunk information into broad categories that are divided into narrower categories. »Your class outlines

21. E. Long Term Memory n c. Forgetting in the encoding stage. –Draw a penny… –Encoding failure. n If encoding is successful, and information goes from ST to LT memory… –Goes to “storage” phase.

22. B. Overall process.

23. E. Long Term Memory n 3. Storage a. Two types of memories: i. Implicit or procedural: memories that allow for learning. –Motor and cognitive skills –Skills do not require conscious recall ii. Explicit or declarative: memories that let us know info and state that we know info. –Facts/general knowledge –Personally experienced events.

24. E. Long Term Memory n 3. Storage n b. Forgetting in the storage stage –Decay Theory: If never use or work on info stored in LT memory, may be forgotten.

25. E. Long-Term Memory n 3. Storage (what/where is it in the brain?) c. Neurobiology in memory. i. Brain structure: i. Brain structure: –Hippocampus » is essential for encoding newly acquired information (explicit). »H.M.: anterograde (can’t form new LT memories) (has short-term/working memory, and implicit memory) vs. retrograde amnesia (can’t retrieve existing LT memories) »NOT only structure involved in memory. ii. Neurons –ACH (Alzheimer’s)

26. E. Long Term Memory n 4. Retrieval: To actually remember info and use it, need to retrieve it from LT storage (put it into ST or working memory). a. LT memory has “web-like” structure importance of cues priming: the activation of particular associations in memory.

27. E. Long Term Memory n 4. Retrieval b. Influences on retrieval. Encoding Specificity: Cues that are prominent in person’s mind during original encoding into LT memory are the most effective cues at retrieval. Encoding Specificity: Cues that are prominent in person’s mind during original encoding into LT memory are the most effective cues at retrieval.

28. E. Long Term Memory n Examples of Encoding Specificity: i. Context Effects: B eing in context similar to encoding at time of retrieval may facilitate remembering (e.g. smells) ii. State-Dependent Memory: H ave better recall if we are in same state at retrieval as we were in encoding. iii. Mood Congruent Memory: Mood also serves as a retrieval cue.

29. E. Long Term Memory n c. Forgetting in the retrieval stage. n i. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: Retrieve parts of memory that must be put into a whole. n ii. Interference: Learning new info can interfere with retrieving old info. - Proactive Interference: something learned earlier disrupts recall of info learned later. - Retroactive Interference: new info makes it harder to recall something learned earlier.

30. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? n Discussed reason why we “forget” information. n But, when we do recall information, is it always correct? n Retrieving memories involves RECONSTRUCTION.

31. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? n 1. Motivated “Forgetting”: n What we do & do not remember is biased by what we want & expect to see. –Consistency –Improvement

32. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? n 2. Memory Reconstruction. –Importance of schemas - filling in gaps of memory. n What happens if “fill in gaps” with incorrect information? –Loftus & Palmer (1974)

33. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? n n Misinformation Effect: Incorporating incorrect information into our memory of an event. n n Are these people lying?

34. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? n B. Applications n Eyewitness Testimony n Repressed Memories Debate n How can we tell true from false memories?

36. n 3 key parts n 4 key processes n How to better remember info: –rehearse rehearse rehearse (space rehearsal) –encoding stage: elaborate, deeply encode info »use meaning, self as cue, images, etc. »use chunks, hierarchies »test to see you encoded info at all –retrieval stage »avoid interference »reinstate the context (state, mood, etc.)