1. Myers’ Psychology for AP* David G. Myers *AP is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. PowerPoint Presentation Slides by Kent Korek Germantown High School Worth Publishers, © 2010

2. Unit 7A: Cognition: Memory

3. Unit Overview The Phenomenon of Memory Information Processing Forgetting Memory Construction Improving Memory Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

4. The Phenomenon of Memory

5. Introduction Memory Extremes of memory

6. Information Processing

7. Introduction Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model Encoding Storage Retrieval

8. Introduction Connectionism –Sensory memorySensory memory –Short-term memoryShort-term memory –Long-term memoryLong-term memory Modified version of the three- stage processing model of memory

9. Introduction Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Information directly into long-term memory –Working memoryWorking memory

10. Modified Three-stage Processing Model of Memory

19. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Automatic Processing –Parallel processingParallel processing –Automatic processingAutomatic processing Space Time Frequency Well-learned information

20. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Effortful Processing Rehearsal (conscious repetition)Rehearsal Ebbinghaus curve –The greater the rehearsal time, the faster relearning occurs.

22. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Ebbinghaus curve

23. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Overlearning Spacing effect –Massed practice (cramming) –Distributed practice Testing effect: –testing improves learning.

24. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Serial position effect –Recency effect Last –Primacy effect First –Recency is best immediately after, Primacy is best after time.

25. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Levels of Processing –Visual encodingVisual encoding –Acoustic encodingAcoustic encoding –Semantic encodingSemantic encoding Self-reference effect –Finding personal meaning enhances encoding/retention

26. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode

30. Visual Encoding –Imagery: mental picturesImagery Rosy retrospection: negative emotions fade faster than positive ones. –Mnemonics: memory aidsMnemonics Peg-word system: “one, two, buckle my shoe….”

31. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Organizing Information for Encoding –ChunkingChunking acronym

32. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Organizing Information for Encoding –ChunkingChunking acronym

33. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Organizing Information for Encoding –ChunkingChunking acronym

34. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Organizing Information for Encoding –ChunkingChunking acronym

35. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Organizing Information for Encoding –ChunkingChunking acronym

36. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Organizing Information for Encoding –ChunkingChunking acronym

37. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Organizing Information for Encoding –ChunkingChunking Acronyms –Roy G. Biv –HOMES Meaningful units –3 – 4 items

38. Self-Test Who were the first people to coin money?

39. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode Organizing Information for Encoding –Hierarchies

40. Another Question Yesterday you memorized (learned?) a list of single digits, what were they?

41. Answer 1776 1812 1861 1917 1941 1963

42. Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Sperling’s memory experiment Iconic memory: fleeting photographic memory, lasts a few tenths of a second. Clears as new memories overtake old.Iconic memory Echoic memory: fleeting memory for auditory stimuli, lasts 3-4 seconds.Echoic memory

43. Storage: Retaining Information Working/Short-Term Memory Magic number Seven (George Miller) –Plus or minus 2 The list of magic sevens –Seven wonders of world -- Seven seas –Seven deadly sins-- Seven primary colors –Seven musical scale notes-- Seven day of the week Short term memory decay: Unless rehearsed, verbal information may be quickly forgotten. (Peterson & Peterson)

44. Storage: Retaining Information Long-Term Memory Unlimited nature of long-term memory

45. Storage: Retaining Information Storing Memories in the Brain Synaptic Changes –Memory trace –Long-term potentiation (LTP)Long-term potentiation (Thank you, Mr. Aplysia, the sea slug) An increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. –Memory boosting drugs CREB (protein that can switch genes off or on) Glutamate (neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic communication, LTP)

46. Storage: Retaining Information Storing Memories in the Brain Stress Hormones and Memory –Emotions and memories Amygdala vs. stress blockers –Flashbulb memoryFlashbulb memory A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event…but, misinformation can seep in.

47. Storage: Retaining Information Storing Memories in the Brain Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories –Amnesia: loss of memoryAmnesia –H.M. Studies (1953): brain tissue loss left old memory intact but could not convert new experiences to long term memory.

48. Storage: Retaining Information Storing Memories in the Brain Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories –Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)retention independent of conscious recollection)Implicit memory –Explicit memory (declarative memory)Explicit memory Memory of facts and experiences that on can consciously know and “declare.” Hippocampus: helps process explicit memories for storage (limbic system) (left=verbal, right=visual)Hippocampus Cerebellum: important part in forming/storing implicit memories.

49. Implicit or Explicit Implicit memory: some are motor skills – riding a bike, playing an instrument, catching a ball. (procedural) Explicit memory: I am able to ride a bike but I do not have the recall to tell you that I do. (declarative)

50. Storage: Retaining Information Storing Memories in the Brain

51. Infantile Amnesia Remember when I asked what was your first memory? – The implicit reactions/skills that we learned during infancy reach far into our future….. – Yet as adults, we recall nothing (explicitly) of our first three years. – We index so much of our explicit memory by words that non-speaking children have not learned but also because the hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature.

52. Retrieval: Getting Information Out Recall: Fill-in-the-blankRecall Recognition: Multiple choiceRecognition Relearning: looking up information multiple times.Relearning

53. Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues: other associations made along with a specific memory. –The more retrieval cues, the better chance of retrieving the suspended memory. Mnemonic devices: serve as retrieval cues Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.Priming

57. Retrieval: Getting Information Out Context Effects Context effects can help prime memory. Déjà vu: the eerie sense that you’ve experienced something before. (Fr. “already seen.”)Déjà vu –Yogi Berra: “It’s like déjà vu all over again.”

58. Retrieval: Getting Information Out Context Effects

64. Retrieval: Getting Information Out Moods and Memories State dependent memory Mood congruent memory –The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

65. The Joy of Forgetting

66. The Pain of Remembering EVERYTHING! A.J. (Jill Price) “…like a running movie that never stops. It’s like a split screen. I’ll be talking to someone and seeing something else…Whenever I see a date flash on the television…I automatically go back to that day and remember where I was, what I was doing, what day it fell on, and on and on….”

67. Introduction Schacter’s Sevens Sins of Memory –Three Sins of Forgetting Absent-mindedness –Inattention to details leads to encoding failure. (Where did I put the keys?” Transience –Storage decay over time (unused information fades. Blocking –Inaccesability of stored information (it’s on the tip of my tongue – retrieval failure)

68. Introduction Schacter’s sevens sins of memory, cont. – Three Sins of Distortion Misattribution: Confusing the source of the information Suggestibility: lingering effects of misinformation Bias: belief-colored recollections. –Single Sin of Intrusion Persistence: unwanted memories (haunted by a memory)

69. Encoding Failure Encoding failure

70. Encoding Failure Encoding failure

71. Encoding Failure

72. Storage Decay Storage decay –Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

73. Storage Decay Storage decay –Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

74. Ebbinghaus Curve

76. Retrieval Failure

77. Retrieval Failure Interference Proactive interference (forward acting)Proactive interference Retroactive interference (backward- acting)Retroactive interference

78. Retrieval Failure Interference

83. Retrieval Failure Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression

84. Retrieval Failure Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression

85. Retrieval Failure Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression

86. Retrieval Failure Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression: we tend to block or repress painful memories to protect ourselves from minimize anxiety. (Freud)Repression

87. Memory Construction

88. Misinformation and Imagination Effects Loftus memory studies: eyewitness reconstruct memories when questioned. Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event. Misinformation effect

89. Source Amnesia Source amnesia (source misattribution)Source amnesia –Attributing to the wrong source and event we have experienced, heaerd about, read about, or imagines. –This, along with misinformation effect, lies at the heart of many false memories.

90. Discerning True and False Memories Memory studies Eye witness testimony – Loftus: how misinformation/encoding failure leads to eyewitness unreliability.

91. Children’s Eyewitness Recall Children’s memories of abuse –Suggestibility Like with adults, leading or suggestible language can impact a child’s recollection of an event. If questioning language about their experiences is neutral, children often accurately recall what happened and who did it.

92. Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? Areas of agreement –Sexual abuse happens –Injustice happens –Forgetting happens –Recovered memories are incomplete –Memories before 3 years are unreliable –Hypnotic memories are unreliable –Memories can be emotionally upsetting

93. Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? Loftus studies with children –Loftus understands firsthand the implications of suggestibility and abuse on memory.

94. Improving Memory

95. Improving Memory Techniques Study repeatedly Make the material meaningful Activate retrieval cues Use mnemonic devices Minimize interference Sleep more Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know

96. The End

97. Teacher Information Types of Files – This presentation has been saved as a “basic” Powerpoint file. While this file format placed a few limitations on the presentation, it insured the file would be compatible with the many versions of Powerpoint teachers use. To add functionality to the presentation, teachers may want to save the file for their specific version of Powerpoint. Animation – Once again, to insure compatibility with all versions of Powerpoint, none of the slides are animated. To increase student interest, it is suggested teachers animate the slides wherever possible. Adding slides to this presentation – Teachers are encouraged to adapt this presentation to their personal teaching style. To help keep a sense of continuity, blank slides which can be copied and pasted to a specific location in the presentation follow this “Teacher Information” section.

98. Teacher Information Hyperlink Slides - This presentation contain two types of hyperlinks. Hyperlinks can be identified by the text being underlined and a different color (usually purple). – Unit subsections hyperlinks: Immediately after the unit title slide, a page (slide #3) can be found listing all of the unit’s subsections. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of these hyperlinks will take the user directly to the beginning of that subsection. This allows teachers quick access to each subsection. – Bold print term hyperlinks: Every bold print term from the unit is included in this presentation as a hyperlink. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of the hyperlinks will take the user to a slide containing the formal definition of the term. Clicking on the “arrow” in the bottom left corner of the definition slide will take the user back to the original point in the presentation. These hyperlinks were included for teachers who want students to see or copy down the exact definition as stated in the text. Most teachers prefer the definitions not be included to prevent students from only “copying down what is on the screen” and not actively listening to the presentation. For teachers who continually use the Bold Print Term Hyperlinks option, please contact the author using the email address on the next slide to learn a technique to expedite the returning to the original point in the presentation.

99. Teacher Information Continuity slides – Throughout this presentation there are slides, usually of graphics or tables, that build on one another. These are included for three purposes. By presenting information in small chunks, students will find it easier to process and remember the concepts. By continually changing slides, students will stay interested in the presentation. To facilitate class discussion and critical thinking. Students should be encouraged to think about “what might come next” in the series of slides. Please feel free to contact me at kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us with any questions, concerns, suggestions, etc. regarding these presentations.kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us Kent Korek Germantown High School Germantown, WI 53022 262-253-3400 kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us

100. Division title (green print) subdivision title ( blue print) xxx –xxx

101. Division title (green print) subdivision title ( blue print) Use this slide to add a table, chart, clip art, picture, diagram, or video clip. Delete this box when finished

102. Definition Slide = add definition here

103. Definition Slides

104. Memory = the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

105. Encoding = the processing of information into the memory systems – for example, by extracting meaning

106. Storage = the retention of encoded information over time.

107. Retrieval = the process of getting information out of memory storage.

108. Sensory Memory = the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

109. Short-term Memory = activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten.

110. Long-term Memory = the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

111. Working Memory = a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

112. Parallel Processing = the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step- by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

113. Automatic Processing = unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

114. Effortful Processing = encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

115. Rehearsal = the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

116. Spacing Effect = the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

117. Serial Position Effect = our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

118. Visual Encoding = the encoding of picture images.

119. Acoustic Encoding = the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.

120. Semantic Encoding = the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

121. Imagery = mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.

122. Mnemonics = memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

123. Chunking = organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

124. Iconic Memory = a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

125. Echoic Memory = a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

126. Long-term Potentiation (LTP) = an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

127. Flashbulb Memory = a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

128. Amnesia = loss of memory.

129. Implicit Memory = retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative or procedural memory)

130. Explicit Memory = memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory)

131. Hippocampus = a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

132. Recall = a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learning earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

133. Recognition = a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

134. Relearning = a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

135. Priming = the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

136. Deja Vu = that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

137. Mood Congruent Memory = the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

138. Proactive Interference = the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

139. Retroactive Interference = the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

140. Repression = in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

141. Misinformation Effect = incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

142. Source Amnesia = attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.