1. 1 Human Memory Chapter 7

2. Table of Contents 2 I. Human Memory Basic Questions  How does information get into memory?  How is information maintained in memory?  How is information pulled back out of memory? Basic Answers  Encoded  Storage  Retrieval

3. Table of Contents 3 Analogy: computers ~ human memory *both encode, store and retrieve information Weiten: Themes and Variations 5 th ed.

4. Table of Contents 4 II. Information Processing Theories  Subdivide memory into 3 different stores  Sensory Memory/Register  Short-term Memory (STM)  Long-term Memory (LTM)

5. Table of Contents 5 Atkinson & Shiffrin “Box Theory”  One of the most influential IPM’s (information processing models/theories) of memory Weiten: Themes and Variations 5th ed.

6. Table of Contents 6 A. Sensory Memory  Brief preservation of information in original sensory form  Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second  George Sperling’s “matrix” (1960)  Classic experiment on visual sensory store  Demonstrated how quickly information in sensory register decays

7. Table of Contents 7 B. Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory 1. The role of attention Focusing awareness Selective attention = selection of input  Filtering: early (before meaning) or late (after meaning) ? current research supports the idea that we can move the filter for late or early filtering

8. Table of Contents 8 2. Levels-of-Processing Theory:  Craik and Lockhart (1972) theorized incoming information is processed at different levels.  Encoding levels: Structural (how it looks) = shallow Phonemic (how it sounds)= intermediate Semantic (what it means) = deep  Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes

9. Table of Contents 9 Craik’s and Lockhart’s levels of processing Weiten: Themes and Variations 5th ed.

10. Table of Contents 10  Retention levels increase as processing deepens!!!!  Scientific support for my “Study beyond recognition” motto!!!!

11. Table of Contents 11 3. Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory  a. Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding

12. Table of Contents 12 (Enriching Encoding con’t)  b. Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered Mnemonic devices – method of loci or peg-word approach Dual-coding theory- enhance memory using visual & semantic codes together Paivio (1986)  c. Self-Referent Encoding Making information personally meaningful Relate it to something you already know! Reasoning for using your own examples on your cards!!

13. Table of Contents 13 C. Short Term Memory (STM)  1. Limited duration – ~20 seconds without rehearsal Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information – helps by keeping information active!  2. Limited capacity Magic number = 7 plus or minus 2 (Miller) Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli into meaningful units to store as a single unit – this increases STM capacity!  3. Serial position phenomenon Idea that the position of an item in a sequence will influence how well it is recalled Two forms : primacy effect - recency effect -

14. Table of Contents 14 3. STM Updated! “Working Memory”  STM not limited to phonemic encoding  Loss of information not only a result of decay  “Working Memory” – (Baddeley, 1986) Similar to traditional STM, but includes a greater variety of functions and more complicated processes 4 components  Phonological rehearsal loop Time (2 seconds recitation time), not item based  Visuospatial sketchpad Hold and manipulate visual information  Executive control system Handles info as you manipulate it – ex. problem solving  Episodic buffer Allows components to integrate info./buffer btw. working and LTM/limited capacity

15. Table of Contents 15

16. Table of Contents 16 D. Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Where were you on 9-11?

17. Table of Contents 17 E. Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity  1. Unlimited? Yes! Permanent? Not likely! Evidence suggests flashbulb memories (vivid long-lasting memory usually associated w/ and arousing event) and recall through hypnosis are fallible!  2. Debate: Are STM and LTM really different? Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding occur in both Decay vs. Interference based forgetting

18. Table of Contents 18 3. Organization Tendencies in Memory  a. Clustering – tendency to remember similar/related items in groups Ex: grouping turkey & dressing on a grocery list  b. Conceptual Hierarchies – classification system using common properties Ex: Fruits AppleOrangeBanana

19. Table of Contents 19 Organization Tendencies in Memory Con’t  c. Schemas – organized clusters of information about an item/event based on prior knowledge EX: you have a scheme of how a doctor’s office looks/ you EXPECT it to look a certain way!  d. Scripts – a special scheme for common activities EX: you have a script for how to drive a car

20. Table of Contents 20 Organization Tendencies in Memory Con’t  e. Semantic Networks – concepts and their web of interrelated pathways EX: Look on page 278 (I have tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon right now!) Explains why one memory can lead to another!  f. Connectionist Networks and Parallel Processing Distribution (PDP) Models Cognitive processes, including memory, depend on activation of interconnected pathways Assert memory is NOT sequential!

21. Table of Contents 21 F. Retrieval: Getting “Accurate?” Information Out  1. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon a failure in retrieval Can be helped by retrieval cues – stimuli which help gain access to memories  2. Reinstating either the external or internal “context”  State-dependent memory – better memory for material tested in the same, emotional, mental or drug-induced state as when the information was learned  Mood congruent memory - *a form of state dependent memory

22. Table of Contents 22 Retrieval con’t  3. Reconstructing memories Memory is NOT exact, we tend to fill in the gaps Ex: telephone activity  4. Misinformation effect (Loftus) – post event information influencing the accurate recall of past events  Effect can have a huge impact on eye-witness testimony!!!

23. Table of Contents 23 Retrieval con’t Misinformation effect is explained in part by the unreliability of…  Source monitoring - the process of making attributions about the origins of memories Did you read it or hear it on TV??  Reality monitoring - type of source monitoring involving determining whether memories are based in actual events (external sources) or your imagination (internal sources) Was it real or imagined?

24. Table of Contents 24 III. Forgetting: When Memory Lapses  A. Measuring Memory Retention – the proportion of material retained Tasks used to measure retention:  Recognition (Hey, study BEYOND this!)  Recall - pulling out info w/o cues  Relearning  Ebbinghaus Famous researcher on forgetting Used nonsense syllables to test retention “Forgetting Curve”  Current research suggests this curve is unusually steep

25. Table of Contents 25 B. Why Do We Forget?  1. Psuedoforgetting – looks like forgetting, but really the info was never stored…usually due to lack of attention so that encoding does not occur Ex: studying for hours, but never really attempting to remember it  2. Ineffective Encoding – superficial encoding Ex: looking at the book, but not really reading it

26. Table of Contents 26 Why Do We Forget? con’t  3. Decay theory – memory traces fade with time  4. Interference theory – forgetting occurs because of competition from other material. Proactive - old information interferes with the retention of new information  old new Retroactive - new information impairs the retention for previously learned information.  old new

27. Table of Contents 27 Weiten: Themes and Variations 5th ed.

28. Table of Contents 28 C. Retrieval Failure  1. Encoding Specificity – the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the way the information was originally coded  2. Transfer-Appropriate Processing – if the processing measure and retention measure are similar, retrieval is easier  3. Repression Authenticity of repressed memories? Very controversial!! Needs more scientific research! * Remember Elizabeth Loftus from the video clip?

29. Table of Contents 29 IV. The Physiology of Memory  A. Biochemistry Memory is related to alteration in synaptic transmission  Durable changes in synaptic transmission may be the building blocks of memories.  Hormones and protein synthesis has also been shown to influence memory formation * Remember the study on the video when the lady had to put her arm in ice water after looking at the slides?

30. Table of Contents 30 The Physiology of Memory con’t  C. Anatomy  Hippocampus – helps consolidate/encode memories  Thalamus – helps form memory traces  Amygdala -

31. Table of Contents 31 The Physiology of Memory con’t  D. Organic Forgetting Retrograde amnesia – failure to remember previously stored information  old X (x= when amnesia started) Anterograde amnesia – inability to form new memories  X new  Life Without Memory: Clive Wearing video clip

32. Table of Contents 32 Amnesia diagram Weiten: Themes and Variations 5th ed.

33. Table of Contents 33 V.Are There Multiple Memory Systems?  A. Declarative Memory – memory for factual information Semantic – knowledge Episodic – personal episodes * Both semantic and episodic memories are “explicit”, meaning we intentionally recall them  B. Procedural Memory – memory for actions/skills * This memory is “implicit”, it is unintentionally remembered. * Some research shows these may be stored in a different part of the brain.  C. Prospective (to do) vs. Retrospective (past)

34. Table of Contents 34 Weiten: Themes and Variations 5th ed.

35. Table of Contents 35 VI. Improving Everyday Memory  Engage in adequate rehearsal  Distribute practice and minimize interference  Emphasize deep processing and transfer- appropriate processing  Organize information  Use verbal and visual mnemonics

36. Table of Contents 36 Study for your quiz!!!  Cards are due! Use three-point format, especially the examples!  Study BEYOND recognition!