1. Thinking, Problem Solving, Decision-Making, Language

2. Thinking

3. Schema Mental framework which helps us organize our world

4. Concepts Concept—mental category we form to group objects, events, or situations that share common characteristics or features. Two Types of Concepts: 1.Formal concept 2.Natural concept Prototype

5. Types of Concepts Formal concept— rigid rules or features that define a particular concept. – All or nothing categorization process (each member of concept has all characteristics; if don’t have all, cannot be member) Categories for solid, liquid, or gas A polygon is… Square = 4 equal sides, 4 right angle corners

6. Types of Concepts Natural concept—Eleanor Rosch said these form from everyday experience, do not have fixed set of defining features, instead share set of typical features; members do not need to have all the characteristic features – Birds (birds fly, lay eggs, have feathers, have wings…) ostrich??? Why not snakes? – Define “justice”

7. Prototype A typical best example incorporating the major features of a concept The closer a new object is to our concept prototype the easier it is to categorize it If an object has four wheels and doors it probably fits our prototype for…

8. Problem Solving Thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a goal that is not readily available. Must understand the problem correctly to accurately solve it.

9. Methods of problem solving 1.Trial & Error - Trying a variety of solutions and eliminating those that don’t work. 2.Decomposition - Break problem down into subgoals 3.Work backwards – start with the end goal and work to the beginning

10. Methods of problem solving 4.Analogies – Relate problem to similar previous problems 5.Improve visual representations of the givens (Venn diagram) 6.Incubate – lay problem aside 7.Insight – aha! (“Unconscious Problem Solving”) The sudden realization of the solution to a problem. You’re not aware of the thought process that led you to an insight.

11. Methods of problem solving Algorithms Heuristics SPLOYOCHYG

12. Algorithms A problem solving strategy that guarantees the solution to the problem Not always the most efficient method Ex. - Lose keys – search every location  y +  z = r 2 SPLOYOCHYG = 907,200 possible combinations

13. Heuristics A rule-of-thumb problem solving strategy that makes a solution more likely and efficient but does not guarantee a solution Examples: “I” before “E” except after “C”; lose keys, check most likely places They simplify the problem solving because they let you reduce the number of possible solutions. (Use the index to find a topic) These can be handy shortcuts, or they can get us into trouble. (What if topic not in the index?) SPLOYOCHYG = exclude rare letter combinations; YY doesn’t usually happen

14. CREATIVITY Ability to produce new, novel, valuable ideas

15. Kinds of Thinking 1.Convergent (directed) thinking – Systematic, logical attempt to achieve specific goal – Needed for problem for which there is one specific solution – Associated with left parietal lobe Convergent--> One answer

16. Convergent thinking questions usually begin with these words or phrases: Why How In what ways... Examples of convergent thinking questions: How does gravity differ from electrostatic attraction? How was the invasion of Grenada a modern day example of the Monroe Doctrine in action? Why was Richard III considered an evil king? In what ways does Roman drama compare to the heroic epics of Indian literature?

17. Kinds of Thinking 2. Divergent (non-directed) thinking – Creative; no one specific answer – Free flow of thoughts, imagery, feelings – May occur when relaxing; allows unexpected insights – Associated with frontal lobes Divergent----> Many possible answers

18. Divergent thinking questions usually begin with these words or phrases: Imagine... Suppose... Predict... If..., then... How might... Can you create... What are some possible consequences... Examples of divergent thinking questions: Can you imagine ways that soccer typifies Mexican culture? Suppose that Caesar never returned to Rome from Gaul. Would the Empire have existed? What predictions can you make regarding the voting process in Florida? How might life in the year 2100 differ from today? The computer corrects spelling. Is it then unnecessary for third graders to take spelling tests?

19. Kinds of Thinking 3.Metacognition – Thinking about thinking – May involve thinking about your own thinking strategies (e.g., stuck on math problem; consider your strategy)

20. Sternberg’s Components of Creativity 1.Expertise – greater knowledge base = greater chance of novel combinations 2.Imaginative thinking skills – see things in novel ways, recognize patterns, see connections 3.Venturesome personality – seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity, perseveres overcoming obstacles 4.Intrinsic motivation – driven more by interest, personal satisfaction, challenge than by anything external 5.Creative environment

21. Decision Making

22. DECISION MAKING Why the “right” decision sometimes has the “wrong” outcome: 1.Multiattributes – options have both + & - features (college choice)

23. Why the “right” decision sometimes has the “wrong” outcome: 2. Hard to compare attributes because: (what major?) a. STM limits b. focus on those most important to individual c. + & - utilities (subjective values) not easily measured PROS & CONS LISTS HELP!

24. Why the “right” decision sometimes has the “wrong” outcome: 3. Hard to estimate probabilities & risks of possible outcomes (future) for different options (post graduation economy) MAXIMIZE EXPECTED VALUE If (Probability of gain x size of gain) – (probability of loss x amount of loss) = +#, go for it

25. Biases & flaws which hamper our ability to make best decisions: 1. Loss aversion (rather not lose than gain same amount) 2. Disproportion of large losses ($10,000 loss = more than 2x worse than $5000 loss) 3. The more you have, the less it means (difference between $)

26. Obstacles to Solving Problems & Influences on Decisions and Judgments

27. Confirmation Bias search for information confirming one’s belief; ignore or distort contradictory evidence Examples: – A reporter who is writing an article on an important issue may only interview experts that support her or his views on the issue. – An employer who believes that a job applicant is highly intelligent may pay attention to only information that is consistent with the belief that the job applicant is highly intelligent. – I think the current health care bill is terrible. I listen to some conservative talk show and they CONFIRM my belief -I must be right if even Fox Entertainment says so too.:) I confirm my existing belief..looking for evidence to support it.

28. Belief Perseverance Clinging to one’s initial beliefs even after new information discredits the basis on which they were formed the best advice to give people who want to avoid belief perseverance is: “Consider the Opposite” Example: I think that the current health care bill is terrible. I actually research it and find out that it is wonderful for all - and that my belief is not valid based on my research - YET I persevere and say - oh no that study is biased I am right.. :)

29. Fixation Inability to see problem from a new, different perspective – Hinders the solution of a problem

30. Fixation: Mental Set A tendency to approach a problem in a particular, previously successful way May or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

31. Fixation: Functional Fixedness Tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual function; inability to see other possible functions Have to unlock the door? Use a credit card. Tighten a screw without a screwdriver? –Use scissors

32. Heuristics – Use and Misuse

33. Anchoring Heuristic Make decisions/judgments by anchoring on an initial value and adjusting their answer from that point – Tend to stay close to initial value; not as great a change as the evidence indicates there should be – Estimates of price, quantity, distance, & likelihood can be altered drastically by manipulating the initial value – Chance of being mugged in NYC starting estimate = 90%; drop to 80%; really only 1% Whole family up by 8AM; only lazy people sleep past 8AM; ok, maybe 9 Issue for defense attorneys because prosecutor’s evidence is presented first

34. Representative heuristic Estimate the likelihood of an event by comparing how similar its essential features are to our prototype of the event. – Example: Because Ken is 6‘6“, people often mistakenly assume that he must be a member of his college's basketball team Can be good, but can also lead to errors – Can be false if… We fail to consider possible variations from the prototype. Fail to consider approximate number of prototypes that actually exist. Stereotyping??? – Judge others according to the likelihood that they fit our representation of groups to which we feel they should belong

35. Most will overuse representativeness – i.e. Steve’s description fits our vision of a librarian Most will underuse base rates Base rate - probability that an event will occur or fall into a certain category (base rate fallacy) – Did you stop to consider that there are a lot more salespeople in the world than librarians? – By sheer statistics, there is a greatly likelihood that Steve is a salesperson. But very few take this into account

36. Availability Heuristic Judge probability of an event by how easily you can recall previous occurrences of that event When instances of an event are easily recalled we consider that event more likely to reoccur. Vivid = more easily recalled Most will overestimate deaths from natural disasters because disasters are frequently on TV Most will underestimate deaths from asthma because they don’t make the local news Rare events can cause us to overestimate the likelihood of reoccurrence. (i.e plane crashes)

37. Other sources of error in decision making/judgment

38. Overconfidence The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge and judgments From combination of use of heuristics, eagerness to confirm our beliefs, & tendency to explain away failures (self-serving bias??) How long will it take you to finish your flashcards & questions?????

39. Framing The way an issue is worded or presented Can influence decisions and judgments – Do you think it is OK to kill unborn children? – Do you believe that abortion is an appropriate option for those with unwanted pregnancies?