1. Universities Globally and in Africa Africa Day Deconstructing Meaning and Impact University of Stellenbosch (FHMS) 25 May 2016 Nico Cloete Director CHET Extra-ordinary Professor UWC, Oslo, SU

2. 1.Functions of universities 2.Higher education and development 3.Africa needs research universities 4.Higher education and inequality 5.SA needs a more differentiated HE system 6.University fees: Trade-offs 7.Africa Components of presentation

3. Youth bulge: Africa is increasingly the youngest continent

4. 1.Producers of values and social legitimation (ideological apparatuses). But universities are not purely reproductive machines, both conservative and radical ideologies are present. The more the ideological hegemony of dominant elites is established then more conservative ideologies tend to predominate and radicalism is confined to a minority of the student body as well as to some “official radicals” among the faculty members. In Latin America and Africa universities are part of the ideological and resource contestations within the societies, contributing to instability in the society and the university. The more the socio-political rule of society relies on coercion rather than on consensus, the more universities become centres challenging the political system, but many authoritarian regimes also co-opt certain student groups. In the HERANA project in 8 African countries only Mauritius have succeeded in developing a pact around the role of the university – and it is also the most successful (equality and political stability) country in Africa. University of Stellenbosch and Fort Hare. Functions of universities (1)

5. 2. Selection of dominant elites This includes the selection and the socialization of the elites, the formation of networks for their cohesion, and the establishment of distinctions between these elites and the rest of the society. Massification of HE has led to broadening these elites from less than 10% of cohorts to over 50% (some cases even 80%) but in many of those countries differentiation (stratification) occurs between elite (world class) universities and general public and private universities. Considerable pressure on universities to reduce inequality. While more education increases income, universities do not reduce inequality through access. Only a very small proportion of the exceptionally poor qualify for university and will complete their studies (NSFAS: 70% do not). In SA too few avenues out of poverty; the pressure to reduce inequality often impedes the other functions of the university. SU and Fort Hare. Functions of universities (2)

6. 3. Training the highly skilled labour force Producing a high quality labour force requires high quality educators. Quality education starts with quality training and respect for teachers. Self-programmable labour - meaning skills that enable workers to adapt to and change working conditions. The professional university that focused on training the labour force is particularly successful in those countries where it is close enough to the industrial world to be useful to the economy, but not so close that it loses its specific role. Universities that become completely subordinate to the needs of the labour market are unable to perform their training functions. A tension between professional training (doctors, accountants) and general education that make ‘well educated’ citizens. Tension between disciplinarily and inter-disciplinarily within and between faculties. SU and Fort Hare. Functions of Universities (3)

7. 4. Production of scientific knowledge with application to society What seems today to be the most obvious function of the university, that is, the generation of new knowledge, is actually the exception throughout the world. The first universities that focused on science and research as a fundamental task were the late 19 th century leading German universities (Humboldt) followed by the US research and Land Grant Universities. Entrepreneurial universities centre on the innovation and the connection between the world of science and technology, and the business world and the enterprise world. It is the knowledge re-generative capacity of universities that underlies sustainable development. The contribution of the university to development is the different forms of connecting new knowledge to society, it is not in delivering a service. ‘Community service’ is not a function of the university. SU and Forth Hare Functions of universities (4) 3

8. 1.Universities fulfil different functions which are accentuated in some universities at some moments of history, but they constantly combine and re-combine in individual institutions and in the university system. 2.The ‘engine of development in the new knowledge economy’ theorists argue that the new modes of economic production are increasingly dependent on knowledge and information technology. Knowledge and ‘Informationalism’ have become central to development in the global economy. 3.The critical element in the structure and dynamics of university systems is their ability to combine and make compatible seemingly contradictory functions. There is no such thing as a pure, or quasi-pure, university model. (Castells, 1993; 2009). 4.Higher education has a major effect on both economic development and private returns – it is a public and a private good. Higher education and development 3

9. Primary educationSecondary EducationTertiary educationGCI Gross enrolment ratio Quality Rating Gross enrolment ratio Quality Rating (+Maths & Science) Gross enrolment ratio Rate of Return Global Competiveness Ranking Stage 1: Factor-driven Ghana 891046776 (72) 12 29119 Kenya 84 6736 (78) 4 2299 Mozambique 8713826119 (133) 5 18133 Tanzania 841243398 (130) 4 19120 Uganda 921132781 (111) 4 -115 Transition from 1 to 2 Botswana 90858277 (95) 20 -71 Stage 2: Efficiency-driven Egypt 9513986139 (131) 30 -116 South Africa 90127111138 (140) 20 4049 China 98558956 (49) 26 2128 Transition from 2 to 3 Chile 921088986 (107)751835 Costa Rica 903910928 (55)482052 Brazil 8713299132 (134)261775 Malaysia 9715716 (12)372218 Mauritius 98489649 (50)412246 Turkey 951008692 (103)701551 Stage 3: Innovation-driven Finland 9911084 (2)94108 South Korea 98369766 (30)991326 Norway 1001711111 (24)741011 Singapore 10031083 (1)94112 United States 91299418 (44)83153 Higher education and stage of development

10. 10 Private returns to education by level and region (WB, 2014) Source: Montenegro & Patrinos 2014 Human development reports comparable estimates of returns to schooling around the world. Washington DC: The World Bank

11. Notes: Own estimates from Labour Force Surveys, 2010. The gap between a diploma and degree course is left so that the values on the horizontal axis also show years of education. Source: Van den Berg (2016). Expected monthly wage for 30-year-old black male by level of education, 2010

12. Africa needs research universities 1.Traditionally, universities in Africa focused on ideology, elite selection and training, and performed poorly on knowledge production. 2.Africa needs to shift to increased participation (from low base of under 10% ) and increased knowledge production - massification and differentiation. 3.Research universities in low- and middle-income countries have crucial roles to play in developing differentiated and effective academic systems. 4.Understanding the characteristics of the research university and building the infrastructures and the intellectual environment needed for successful research universities is a top priority (Altbach, 2013).

13. Africa’s research performance 1.Publications in Africa increased from 11 776 in 2002 to 19 650 in 2008 – 66.9% growth (world average = 34.5%). 2.Africa’s share globally increased from 1.6% to 2.0%, Latin America from 3.8% to 4.9% and Asia from 24.2% to 30.7%. 3.From 2000-2008 Asia’s share of researchers rose from 35.2% to 38.2%, Latin America from 3.0% to 3.8% and Africa’s global share of researcher share fell from 2.2% to 2.1%. 4.African Union publication output grew by 43% compared to the world average of 18% (Source: Scopus). 5.If the African Union were a country, it would be just behind India, China and Brazil, but ahead of Russia in publication output in the BRICS. Sources: African Observatory for Science, Technology and Innovation; Zaleza P. 2014. The Development of STEM in Africa.

14. Source: HERANA

15. Black doctoral graduates produced by universities in 2012

16. 16 Average annual growth rates by nationality and gender (2000–2012) Source: Cloete et al. (2015) Knowledge Production and Contradictory Functions in African Higher Education

17. Source: HERANA/Web of Science

18. Source: HERANA

19. Access to tertiary education is regarded by the ‘haves’ as a means to maintain privilege, and by the ‘have‐nots’ as a means to get out of poverty. In 1970 in the US, 10% of students from the lowest income quintile went to university in contrast to 40-50% from quintiles four and five. Forty years later (2010), still only 10% of quintile one went to university, but for quintiles four and five the percentage had increased to 80-90%. HE in the US has thus become part of the ‘iron cage of privilege’ (Piketty, 2014). The Hamilton Project in the US: ‘Why more education won’t fix economic inequality’ shows more education increases income for everybody, but does not reduce overall inequality (Leonhardt, 2015). While HE offers a ladder out of poverty for a limited few it is not a efficient mechanism to reduce inequality. Higher education and inequality

20. 20 1.There is broad agreement amongst economists of higher education funding that government subsidies are ‘regressive’, meaning subsidies favour the rich (Garritzmann, 2014). 2.In OECD countries, public universities consistently argue that low or no tuition fees provide greater equality of educational opportunity by providing greater access... But the overwhelming subsidy in public universities accrue to students from the middle and high income families (Barr, 2004). 3.Blanket university fee reduction benefits the wealthy – and slows change (Fourie, 2015). 4.Not uncommon for tertiary education spending to benefit the rich: ‘Our findings for South Africa are not unique, since WB research shows much of tertiary education spending in Armenia, Bolivia, and Brazil benefits higher income groups as well’ (Van den Berg, 2014). Who benefits from university subsidies?

21. Approximate distribution of university attendance for a recent matric cohort Source: Van den Berg (2016).

22. 1.‘The purpose of post colonial flagship universities was to train a tiny elite on full scholarships which included tuition, board, health insurance, transport and personal needs.’ Makerere was described as a ‘devaluation of higher education into a form of low-level training with no research’ (Mamdani, 2008). 2.For government ‘free higher education is highly visible and populist, and encourages the perception that the state is providing something people want... free higher education in Africa was built on inequitable social structures. It reproduced these inequalities... free higher education in highly unequal societies mainly benefits the already-privileged (new political and business elite), who have the social, cultural and economic capital required to access, participate and succeed in education’ (Langa et al., 2016). 3.Trade-off: Low: Government spending – mass (elite) – private 4.Dual system: Private colleges high private spending – low quality. HE inequality in Africa

23. 1.The so-called knowledge economy requires a great diversity of skills programmes, and differentiation in the levels of skills and performance. 2.Broadly this means:  High % of labour with post-matric qualifications for people to work in jobs that require higher than matric-level information processing and problem-solving: ‘In the coming years, jobs requiring at least an associate degree are projected to grow twice as fast as jobs requiring no college experience’ (Obama 2010).  A strata in the HE system that offers general and vocational-orientated education, mainly, but not exclusively, at the undergraduate level to produce what Castells (2001) calls ‘self-programmable labour’, meaning skills that enable workers to adapt to changing working conditions.  A group of universities that concentrate on high-level professional training and new knowledge production with a high percentage of staff with doctorates (70%), and with more than 40% of students in postgraduate programmes (currently 7 universities produce 70% of all PhDs; 6 universities 1%) (Cloete et al., 2015). SA needs a more differentiated HE system

24. 24 South Africa post-school system, 2010 vs 2014 Source: DHET HEMIS 2012. Compiled by Charles Sheppard. Graphic by CHET/Francois van Schalkwyk.

25. 1.Currently SA has a system that could be characterised as: low government investment – low participation – high private cost. 2.England with almost 50% participation has what appears to be medium private cost, but it is actually high (around £9000) but with a very good deferred payments scheme it is almost free for UK students and very expensive for foreigners. This scheme has boosted the income of universities. 3.In Africa universities with free public HE have tried to introduce fees, but politicians are scared of a political backlash and have not supported it, leading to a disastrous, ‘free by day and pay by night’ schemes. 4.Cuba used HE as part of reducing inequality and has very high government investment, medium enrolment (25%) and low private costs. But the system is very low on postgraduate enrolment and new knowledge production. 5.China has high government investment, medium (fast-growing) participation (30%) and high private costs (with high loans-availability). China has driven the fastest expansion of HE in history. Along with the highest economic growth rate in the world, they have driven HE expansion (with selected excellence), the building of a middle class, but an increase in inequality. University Fees: Trade-offs for South Africa

26. Trilemma of trade-offs: England, China, SA & Africa Source: Busemeyer (2015). Graphic by CHET/Francois van Schalkwyk. 26

27. 1.Very few of the poor (deciles 1-5) ever get to university. A government committee (Swartz) recommended free HE for this group. The unanswered, but very important question is where the poor income-line is drawn. 2.There is considerable evidence that poor students on NSFAS grants are passing courses, but completion rates are very low. The implication is that the poor are in a 'revolving door' situation: admitted to HE but don’t graduate which leaves them 'poor with debt' – and some are clearly angry (Cloete, 2016a). 3.Barr (2004) advised the UK government that poor students should not get loans; to pay back loans keep them in a disadvantaged position. 4.There must be a much larger range of reputable post-matric alternatives (TVET college, employment/internships) so that university is not the 'only' path out of poverty. If this pressure is not relieved it will destabilise the whole university system. 5.Poor students must be better selected, and when admitted, better supported, not only financially and academically, but also socially (for example REAP). 6.If HE is totally free for the poor, SA will have an exacerbated European problem: students linger (park) in HE and do not complete their studies. Almost free higher education for the poor

28. 1.The middle class can be conceptualised as the 'actual' middle class which is between R20 000 to R60 000 p.a. (about 31% of households) or the 'relatively affluent' middle class (R200 000-R500 000) (Visagie, 2013). 2.To qualify for NSFAS (less than R120 000) means that most of the actual middle class could be classified as 'poor' – and they account for 75% of the population. 3.The 'missing middle' consists of one group who are not poor enough for NSFAS but not affluent enough to qualify for bank loans and the ‘relatively affluent’ who qualify for bank loans, but can often only afford one child at university – SA’s own one-child policy. 4.Worldwide, the children of the working class (artisans, teachers, nurses, police) have a strong aspiration to, and considerably greater success at university than the poor. Neither the economy nor the ruling party can abandon this group. 5.With parents in employment, middle class students have a better success rate, and better labour market opportunities. This group needs loans or deferred payments (different types of payback while working, or even retired). In addition to the UK and Australia, deferred payments is under discussion by a number of OECD countries (Bakarat, 2015). The different middle classes

29. 1.Only 4% of households earn more than R500 000 p.a. 2.Contrary to popular belief, in countries like Norway and Germany, it is not the rich who pay for free HE, it is the middle class with more than 95% employment and almost 100% pay taxes. The combined wealth of Motsepe, Rupert and the Gupta’s will not fund NSFAS for more than a few years. 3.It is the elite group who are 'born' into HE (over 80% attend) and is most successful – free HE will advantage them even more. 4.In SA, HE fees are a bargain for the elite; only affordable for the relatively affluent middle class with loans and debt, and unaffordable for the actual middle class and the poor. 5.Fourie (2015) proposed a fees sliding scale that ranges from R150 00 for the elite to R15 000 for the poor. 6.An important question to be determined is what percentage of their budgets the government, business and civil society must contribute to HE. Differentiated affordability (Elite)

30. DO NOT: 1.Provide free public higher education to the children of the political and business elite. 2.Think free higher education is only a problem of affordability; in Africa (and all unequal societies) it is an immoral idea. 3.Have a tertiary education participation rate of under 10% - it should be over 30%. 4.Have a HE system that consists mostly of universities – there should be more students in post-secondary school colleges and vocational/technical education than in universities. 5.Encourage the university to become a main factor in the ideological and resource contestations and fragmentation of the society. 6.Allow political parties with sponsorship and political patronage onto the campuses. 7.Forget that we are in Africa. What can we learn from HE in Africa