1. LIN 1300 Study Notes October 14 th 2012

2. Ferdinand de Saussure’s diagram of the signs Signified- concept Signifier- form [ kat ]

3. Linguistic Signs 1.Arbitrary - allow us to arbitrarily associate concepts with sound patterns, different signifiers for different languages. The link between the concept and the sound pattern don’t have to be obvious, which is contrary to visual signs 1.Conventional - individuals who speak the same code agreeing on a set of conventions, which is found in a language like English. Signs have to be learned through experience, they are not innate to us. However, the ability to distinguish meaning by associating signifiers and signified is an innate one 2.Linear - Represented on a time axis with one element after each other following each other chronologically ie. Tap  [t] + [a] + [p] Encoding/ decoding does not happen simultaneously, each element is decoded in turn This is opposed to a message transmitted through a visual sign such as a stop sign

4. Langage vs. langue vs. parole Abstract faculty vs. actual use by an individual Langage- the natural inherent and universal ability humans have to create languages or codes to communicate Langue- a particular and concrete linguistic system used for communication ie. English, French, Spanish, Japanese etc. Progression from abstract to concrete Langage  language  parole

5. Displacement Context/ time of reference Humans can talk about past/present/ future/ hypothetical events ie. Honeybees however can communicate displacement to others about how to find food in a horizontal way only in alignment with the sun to produce an angle

6. Productivity & Creativity Humans have a large number of units of meaning in language (words, morphemes) Non human primates have a fixed number that doesn’t grow, can’t combine to create new meaning (ie. about 36 calls for a chimpanzee)

7. Complexity Human language is fairly complex Learning a second, third etc. language is usually difficult for us We learn our first language/ mother tongue within the first 5 years of our lives Word order is very important, specific to language Non human primates lack structure in their language compared to humans Morphemes- units of meaning Syntax- sentence composition

8. Cultural Transmission Language is acquired from our environments We aren’t born knowing any specific language, only the capacity to learn it If children aren’t exposed to language in an early age, the learning process is affected We need language in our surroundings Animals are born with a set of signals that are produced instinctively Programmed genetically, this led to a debate about whether human language is genetically programmed ie. Birds do not sing with an “accent”, they sing like all of the others around them Ie. Chimpanzees produce noise that is not influenced by their surroundings whatsoever

9. Duality of patterning Morphemes can be divided into units of sound that alone cannot carry meaning ie. Cat  [k]+[a]+[t] In animals however, “woof” is not [w]+[oo]+[f] In this situation, dogs do not separate acoustic signals, signal cannot be divided into smaller units, therefore dogs do not have the ability to pattern sounds like humans can

10. Acquisition of Language Chimpanzees produce 20,000 utterances Signs exist independently without syntax He only knows what we teach him Can associate a signifier with a signified Can communicate but can’t develop a system Conclusion: can chimpanzees learn to communicate using a system developed by humans? Yes Is it comparable to the acquisition of human language? NO

11. Other species can’t learn human language, but can we teach it to them? Extensive research performed ie. Chimpanzees raised like human babies Can’t cognitively/ physically produce human language Vocal tract is not formed in a way that is able to produce humanely recognized sound Human babies share the same physiological traits However, chimpanzees are adept at learning sign language ie. Nim Chimpsky The vocabulary is around a dozen signs, mostly related to food and eating Has no innovation/ doesn’t explore the possibility of forming sentences

12. 2 general theories to how language is acquired General cognitive ability- everything is acquired from the environment/ acquired Language specific genetic program- innate

13. Language is Acquired- Behaviorist Theory Behaviorism- study of language as a behavior Explains general acquisition of everything, not just language Some people try to apply behaviorism to linguistic Acquired through both biological and environmental factors No genetic program specific for language acquisition in our brains We learn language thanks to our general cognitive processes ie. Learning a sport

14. Practice- we hear something and practice/ repeat it Feedback- our learning is reinforced due to the feedback we receive Positive/ praise, negative/correction *Based on behaviorism, this could be what allows language to be acquired Linguistics is the accumulation of habits due to imitation and practice Habit formation

15. The Environment and Language The environment plays a huge role in the acquisition process ie. Variation in the way we speak because everyone is subject to different linguistic input Language is defined as a social behavior ie. Men, women speak differently Behaviorism can explain the aspects of language that are regular and routinized ie. Hearing something repeatedly can lead to habit and repetition

16. What we hear in the environment is not necessarily what we hear in language Ie. Children exposed to very basic linguistic sources still develop a complex linguistic system Behaviorism can’t account for the speech errors they make that they would of never heard from an adult “what do you think what cookie monster eats”, incorrect syntax that wouldn’t be heard from an external source Therefore there must be another system they imitate Can’t be explained through practice and imitation

17. Critical Period Critical period- A period in the life of an organism during which this organism may be affected by exogenous influences more easily than at other times. The organism is more sensitive to the stimulation in the environment during a critical period that at other times The critical period influences the process of language acquisition

18. Behaviorism also can’t explain how 2 children will not learn the same 2 words at the same time However there is a range of common developmental milestones ie most children will produce first words around the age of 1 There is something common and universal that is at work that behaviorism is not a part of Behaviorism says we learn due to the feedback we receive Kids make generalizations about language (ie wrongly conjugating a verb) which they can’t correct thru feedback Therefore behaviorism could not be implicated in the acquisition

19. Language emerges due to a genetic trait Innatism- Chomsky Many linguists believe in innatism but don’t 100% agree with Chomsky’s theory and usually tone it down to make it more plausible Why languages have the structure they have In innatism: humans have a genetic predisposition for language acquisition. We develop language like an organ or learning to walk “Langage”- the psychological ability Innatism does not believe that the environment plays an important role

20. Universal Grammar (UG) Chomsky Originally called language acquisition device Has all the principles that are universal to all languages Contains principles that all languages have in common In a sentence, a language always has a verb The “skeleton” of language Relative to our exposure to language Syntax parameters vary according to language ie. French vs. English, English vs. Japanese

21. Innatism describes what behaviorism can’t Children learn language quickly because the ability is already programmed into their brains Language acquisition happens in the same way/ same time to all children who are without development issues Questions not answered: Where does universal grammar come from? What is the “language gene”, what does it look like? No evidence What knowledge comes from universal grammar and what part is acquired from the environment

22. Personal opinion: (common belief) Language is a combination of innate and acquired A lot of evidence beyond what innatism can explain that language could be in part innate Language is specific to our species Different from any language we obverse in other species We can’t teach it to other species

23. Language acquisition is affected by a sensitive/critical period Quote etc We have a critical period for learning language Defined beginning/ defined end If you’re programmed to learn something and you’re exposed to it, there is a large chance you will learn it during that time ie. How birds need to learn to sing within a period of seven weeks, after that they become desensitized and it becomes harder to learn Same with humans If we are exposed to language out of out critical period, it becomes increasingly difficult to learn - Late exposure - Aphasia

24. Genie Found at the age of 13 (mental age was around the equivalent of a three year old) Highly underdeveloped/ abused Punished for trying to produce sounds Had no communication system Studied during her rehabilitation Tried to teach her social and linguistic behaviors They could never teach her how to speak English to generalized standards Is this due to her exposure occurring out the critical period or because she was extremely physiologically damaged Large indication that language occurs independently from other cognitive processes

25. Aphasia A language impairment that occurs due to brain damage The recovery pattern in aphasia patients is relative to the age of the patient at the time their injury was received Past the age of ten, the brain injury could cause the loss of linguistic ability that can be as serious as an adult This is evidence that a critical or sensitive period could exist AND is genetically programmed Therefore innateness in language is relevant When/why does the critical period happen Difficult for language to relocate to another part of the brain

26. Children know a lot more about language than what they are exposed to Productivity- we hear a finite amount sentences, but we can produce an infinite number of new sentences Errors- we see errors in children that are supplied thru input All children make similar linguistic errors, this relates to the universal principles of grammar ie. A child won’t say something that is completely unseen in any known language Children are able to define what is grammatical or not even without being told We know about the structure of language without having studied it We have found indication that when we’re born our brains are already equipped with parts that are specific to language acquisition

27. Dichotic listening 2 auditory processes in our brains- linguistic and acoustic Electroencephalography- measures electricity coming from brain Functional magnetic resonance imaging- measures blood flow Indicates specialization of certain regions for language processing even in the first days of life Evidence for innateness Clear association between our ability to learn language and our ability to do other things SLI- kids have normal cognitive development, however cannot learn the morphology of their language Prominent more in language with complicated morphology ie French, Spanish Opposite- Williams syndrome- cognitive issues with no or very little linguistic issues Conclusion: cognitive and language specific functions occur separately

28. Language develops in a similar way even if it is invented Goldin-Meadow studies 10 deaf children not exposed to sign language for the first 1-4 years Develop their own sign language This happened in the same way that any other language would of developed