1. 1 Soluble Fiber examples include gums, pectins, some hemicelluloses functions: –delay gastric emptying –slow transit through the digestive system –delay glucose absorption –bind to bile, help decrease cholesterol food sources: fruits

2. 2 Insoluble Fiber examples include cellulose, hemicellulose functions: –speed transit through the digestive tract –delay glucose absorption –soften stool to ease passage –reduces risk of hemorrhoids((البواسير, diverticulitis ((الانسداداتand appendicitis(التهابات الزائدة الدودية) food sources: cereal grains, legumes, vegetables, nuts

3. DERIVED CARBOHYRATES Oxidation Reduction Amino Deoxy Products Products Sugars Sugars Gluconic acid Glycerol Glucosamine Glucuronic acid RibitolGalactoseamine Glucaric acidMannoseamine Deoxyribose “These are derived from carbohydrates by various chemical reactions ”

4.  Oxidation products These reactions produce different products according to the reagent used. i-Bromine water ; is a mild oxidizing reagent. It selectively oxidizes the -CHO group into -COOH, and converts aldoses to the corresponding aldonic acids ii-Nitric acid ; is a strong oxidizing agent. It oxidizes both the -CHO and terminal -CH 2 OH of an aldose to - COOH groups, and these dicarboxylic acids are known as aldaric acids.

5. iii-Controlled oxidation: this is carried out by first protecting the -CHO group, followed by oxidation of the -CH 2 OH group to give alduronic acid, e.g. oxidation of glucose into glucuronic acid.

6. 6  Reduction product Aldoses and ketoses can be reduced with sodium borohydride into the corresponding alditols. Examples: glucose gives sorbitol (-CHO is converted to –OH), mannose gives mannitol, galactose gives dulcitol.

7. 7 This reduction occure under hydrogen gas at aspecific pressure and presence of Na/Hg as Chemical catalyst or sodium borohydride (NaBH 4 ).

8.  Substitution products (Amino sugars) 8 It is occur by specialized enzymes Where the replacement of a hydroxyl group in one of the following groups: NH2 CH3 R-CO  Example: Replacing the hydroxyl group on the second carbon atom in the glucose group with amine group and produces a compound of glucose amine.  This compound is important for formation of glycoprotein.

9. 9

10. 10 Regulation of Blood Glucose Optimal functioning of the body is dependant on keeping levels of glucose within certain parameters. Elevated blood glucose = Hyperglycemia Low blood glucose = Hypoglycemia The ENDOCRINE SYSTEM is primarily responsible for regulating blood glucose. The two main hormones are INSULIN and GLUCAGON.

11. 11 Regulation of Blood Glucose

12. 12 Diseases associated with carbohydrates Diabetes mellitus Galactosemia Lactose intolerance Glycogen storage diseases Glucose —The most important carbohydrate Function : Glucose can be converted into glycogen ribose galactose Glycoproteins — molecular targeting Antibodies and blood clotting factors(( عوامل تخثر الدم Structural components of cell membranes

13. 13 Diabetes Mellitus a disorder of energy metabolism due to failure of insulin to regulate blood glucose results in hyperglycemia acute symptoms include thirst, increased urine production, hunger long term consequences include increased risk of heart disease, kidney disease, blindness(فقد البصر), neural damage two forms: Type I and Type II

14. 14 Diabetes Mellitus Type I accounts for about 10% of cases occurs when  cells of the pancreas are destroyed –insulin cannot be synthesized without insulin, blood glucose levels rise because the tissues are unable to access the glucose death occurs shortly after onset unless given injections of insulin

15. 15 Diabetes Mellitus Type II occurs when cells of body are unable to respond to insulin called “insulin insensitivity” or “insulin resistance” blood glucose levels rise insulin secretion increases in an attempt to compensate –leads to hyperinsulinemia(فرط افراز الأنسولين)

16. 16 Hypoglycemia dramatic drop in blood glucose symptoms similar to an anxiety attack: rapid weak heart beat(زيادة معدل ضربات القلب, sweating((تعرق, anxiety((قلق, hunger((جوع, trembling((ارتجاف, weakness(ضعف) RARE in healthy people may occur as a result of poorly managed Diabetes or other causes: –reactive hypoglycemia –fasting hypoglycemia

17. 17 The Glycemic Index a measure of the extent to which a food raises blood glucose concentration & elicits an insulin response compared to pure glucose LowModerateHigh pasta baked beans bran cereals apples milk banana orange juice ice cream white bread cornflakes potatoes jelly beans watermelon

18. 18 The Glycemic Index cont. Glucose 100 Baked potato85 Jelly bean78 Honey73 Bagel72 Sucrose65 Boiled new potato62 Brown rice55 Chocolate49 Boiled carrots47 Orange44 Spaghetti42 Apple38 Skim milk32 Lentils29 Fructose23

19. 19 The Glycemic Index cont. The Theory … consuming foods with a low glycemic index will minimize dramatic fluctuations in blood glucose this reduces the need for insulin secretion and may help manage Type II Diabetes eating several small meals frequently has similar metabolic effects on blood glucose as does consuming low glycemic index foods