1. Solar Neutrinos Learning about the core of the Sun Guest lecture: Dr. Jeffrey Morgenthaler Jan 26, 2006

2. Review Conventional solar telescopes –Observe optical properties of the Sun to test standard model –Properties include: brightness, color, spectrum, Doppler shifts of small patches –Doppler shifts indicate Sun is ringing like a bell –“Tones” of bell allow probing of solar interior – to a point (fig 4.9 in textbook)

3. Helioseismology

4. Neutrinos Basic scientific principle: ENERGY CONSERVATION –Energy in = energy out Wolfgang Pauli solved a problem using the principle of energy conservation –The answer to his problem: the neutrino The neutrino gave us another problem: –How to detect neutrinos!

5. A little Particle Physics Chemistry tells us atoms are made up of electrons, protons and neutrons Particle physics probes deeper into the nucleus finding more fundamental particles: leptons and quarks –Leptons: electron, muon, tau and associated neutrinos, (all come in + and – varieties) –Quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom (all come in matter and anti-matter varieties) –Protons and neutrons are built out of 3 quarks (combo of up and down) with leptons waiting in the wings –Rules of interaction are complicated

6. Nuclear Reactions that involve Neutrinos Beta Decay (neutrino “discovery”) Inverse beta-decay (first neutrino detection in 1956) Common neutrino detection scheme P-P chain first step Boron 8 (occasional solar reaction) P + P  D + e + +  e N  P + e - +  e P +  e  N + e + 8 B  2 4 He + e + +  e N +  e  P + e - + recoil

7. A look at the numbers 2 x 10 38 solar neutrinos produced every second Almost all make it out of the sun (weakly interacting with matter) Traveling very near the speed of light (8 min travel time to earth) 70 billion neutrinos per second in each 1 cm square patch on earth Idea: catch the neutrinos and see if they tell us anything about the solar interior

8. Neutrino Detector History First try in ~1963 (Barberton Ohio) Debugged technique –A Chlorine + neutrino  radioactive Argon –Underground to reduce background from non- neutrino events Showed bigger detector required

9. Homestake Construction (1966 photo)

10. Homestake Neutrino Detector Operation The Solar Neutrino Unit (SNU) = 1 neutrino interaction per second per 10 36 detector atoms Problem: 10 36 is a lot of atoms (about 240 million tons of cholrine) Homestake could afford ~10 30 atoms Result: Homestake counted about 2.5 neutrinos per day (2.55 ± 0.25 SNU) Based on standard solar model, expected 8 ± 1 SNU “Solar neutrino problem”

11. If at first you don’t succeed… Kamiokande was built to look for the spontaneous decay of protons and bound neutrons –Works by detecting flashes of light (Cherenkov radiation) from recoil of nuclei –Maximum speed of light waves is fixed in a vacuum, but gets slower when traveling through something –Shock waves happen when a particle travels faster than the maximum speed of a wave

12. Kamiokande

13. Kamiokande II Upgrade of Kamiokande Detected neutrinos from supernova 1987a –Started detecting solar neutrinos in 1988 –Definitive direction information by 1991 Measured ½ as many neutrinos as expected! –But was sure they were coming from the Sun…

14. …try again…

15. Gallium-based neutrino detectors Use Gallium to detect neutrinos from p-p reaction GALLEX and SAGE used similar techniques to Homestake –Gallium + neutrino  radioactive Germanium –Sweep Germanium out of system –Count radioactive decays Expected 132 SNU, measured ~75 SNU!

16. This is getting ridiculous Choose 1: –The standard solar model is wrong –We don’t (didn’t…) understand neutrinos The ability to predict many solar properties just starting from a ball of gas and letting nuclear reactions, diffusion, and convection take place suggests we need to look more closely at neutrinos

17. Neutrino Oscillations (MSW effect) Lincoln Wolfenstein first to have the idea, Stanilaw Mikheyev and Aleksei Smirnov refined Using the rules of quantum mechanics MSW predicts how neutrinos of different types (flavors) behave in the presence of matter –Electron, Mu, and Tau neutrinos mutate from one to another Detectors sensitive to electron neutrinos miss others, hence the SNU shortfall

18. Superkamiokande

19. Late-breaking news The Japanese-American collaboration announced the detection of neutrino oscillations in 1998 by looking at neutrinos produced in the atmosphere Raymond Davis, Jr. (Homestake) and Masatoshi Koshiba (Kamiokande) shared the 2002 Nobel Prize in physics for their work in neutrino physics

20. Future of Neutrino Astronomy Sudbury Neutrino Detector (SNO) –Verified MSW Superkamiokande Amanda/ICE Cube

21. Amanda/Ice Cube Detects neutrinos converting in ice at the south pole

22. Summary Principle of CONSERVATION OF ENERGY led to proposal of neutrino by Wolfgang Pauli Neutrino flux from sun measured by several experiments (in units of SNU) fell short from solar model expectations (solar neutrino problem) Solar model proves reliable for many thing Led to proposal of MSW (neutrino oscillations) Solar astronomy helped particle physics

23. Next Topic: Rotation of the Sun and Magnetic Field Review effect of sound speed on waves –Vacuum cleaner analogy –Waves propagate faster towards center of Sun Refraction (bending) depends on wavelength –Bigger wheels on vacuum cleaner

24. Differential rotation