1. BASIC EMOTIONS

2. Basic Emotions? “An emotion is either basic, or not really an emotion” (Ekman, 1992) Work by Ekman and his co-workers in the 1980s identified a differing pattern of arousal for six basic emotions

3. Ekman’s basic emotions Happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear and surprise. And later – Happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, surprise and contempt

4. Preliminary evidence Ekman et al (1983) Participants asked to recall events that featured these emotions, or make faces that corresponded to the emotions, while a variety of physiological measures were taken

5. Results showed: Heart rate increased for anger and fear Body temperature increased only for anger (Others have found that these differences occur across different cultures)

6. Overall the evidence suggests that some but not all emotions have individual patterns of autonomic activity So, what makes a basic emotion basic?

7. According to Ekman … 1) Distinctive Universal Signals (Ekman, 1993; 1997) e.g. facial expressions. Wagner (2000) example of contempt: a) interpersonal b) predicated upon other person’s -ve actions c) involves perceived superiority of person having the emotion

8. Ekman & Friesen (1986) –“unilateral lip curl” Match label to expression. Closed choice Ekman & Heider (1988) –unique FE for contempt

9. West Sumatra comparison Showed photos of Japanese and US faces Contempt systematically distinguished from anger, happiness, disgust, sadness, fear and surprise Replicated with faces from own culture Russell (1991) Open choice method saw no replication

10. Ekman & Friesen (1986) replicated in 1992 by Matsumoto Izard’s research found for universality but was ltd. to literate cultures Russell (1994) forced-choice method was a weakness, as was forced facial expressions

11. Schimmack (1996) Meta-analysis found that no. of emotions presented was a confound Yrizarry (1998) Multiscalar intensity ratings allows multiple emotion recording

12. 2) Emotion-specific Physiology Evidence from Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen (1983), Levenson, Ekman, & Friesen (1990) for distinctive autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity for fear, anger and disgust Larsen et al (2008) – emotions should vary in their patterns across various measures

13. Ekman et al’s (1983) study of autonomic specificity –Participants given muscle-by-muscle instruction to pose basic emotions –Participants relived strong emotions –For both of the above, different patterns witnessed for finger temperature and heart rate

14. Levenson, Carstensen, Friesen, & Ekman (1991) found a distinctive pattern for sadness Levenson, Ekman, Heider, and Friesen (1992) replicated findings in a non-Western culture (Minangkabau of Western Sumatra) They replicated Ekman et al.’s (1983) original findings Cacoppo et al (2008) did a meta-analysis: happiness most easily distinguishes due to negligent biological pattern

15. Shin et al. (2000) - anterior cingulate cortex and insula activated in guilt Bartels and Zeki (2000) corroborated this when displaying photographs of participants’ partners These structures implicated more generally in the regulation of the body (Damasio, 1999)

16. 3) Automatic Appraisal Mechanism “There must be an appraiser mechanism which selectively attends to those stimuli (external or internal) which are the occasion for... [one or another emotion]. Since the interval between stimulus and emotional response is sometimes extraordinarily short, the appraisal mechanism must be capable of operating with great speed. Often the appraisal is not only quick but it happens without awareness, so I must postulate that the appraisal mechanism is able to operate automatically. It must be constructed so that it quickly attends to some stimuli, determining not only that they pertain to emotion, but to which emotion... Appraisal is not always automatic. Sometimes the evaluation of what is happening is slow, deliberate and conscious. With such a more extended appraisal there may be some autonomic arousal, but perhaps not of a kind which is differentiated. The person could be said to be aroused or alerted, but no specific emotion is operative. Cognition plays the important role in determining what will transpire. During such extended appraisal the evaluation may match to the selective filters of the automatic appraiser.... It need not be, however; the experience may be diffuse rather than specific to one emotion” (Ekman, 1977, pp58-59).

17. Averill (1980) proposed that emotions are cognitive appraisals that are contextualised within behavioral scripts Enculturation as a key concept Greenspan (2000) – it is possible to use anger strategically as it involves the individual in perceiving /construing events in certain ways

18. 4) Universal Antecedent Events Ekman et al. (1969) found that a preliterate tribe in New Ginea (the Fore) agreed with Western interpretations of which social situations were linked to which basic emotion facial expressions

19. Sadness was agreed to be caused by loss of a child. Disgust face was agreed to be caused by rotten food etc Prinz (2004) notes a weakness - expressions of contempt not included in preliterate studies

20. Evidence re literate societies is contradictory (Ekman & Friesen, 1986, 1988; Izard & Haynes, 1988; Ricci-Bitti, Brighetti, Garotti, & Boggi-Cavallo, 1988) Briggs (1970) – Inuit rarely express anger, however – this may be support for emotions being due to enculturation/social construction

21. Goddard (1996) – Malaysian concept of “amok” is closest approximation to anger, but is closer to uncontrolled frenzy – this challenges the universality proposal Japanese amae – seen in children but not adults Japanese fureai - connectedness (Markus and Kitayama, 1991)

22. 5) Presence in other primates Evidence is limited for facial expressions of fear and anger, sadness and happiness (Chevalier- Skolnikoff, 1973; Redican, 1982) Ekman and Friesen (1992) – generation of similar expressions, yet causal mechanisms unclear

23. 6) Rapid onset Ekman and Friesen (1978) - milliseconds

24. 7) Brief duration Frijda, Mesquita, Sonnemans, and Van Goozen (1991) – “everyday” emotion last for less than 30 minutes Frijda, Mesquita, Sonnemans, and Van Goozen (1992) - 5 seconds to several hours However, participants did self-reports re emotion duration when they were not in fact experiencing the emotion

25. 8) Unbidden occurrence Individual differences? Role of appraisal? Social constructionists disagree with points 6, 7 and 8 on this list

26. How and why do Oatley and Johnson- Laird, Ekman, Izard, Panksepp and Frijda etc differ? Ekman –basic = expression Gray –basic = hard-wired

27. Oatley and Johnson-Laird: –basic = no propositional content required Plutchik: –basic = evolution Ekman is not the only theorist! Consider the following chart from Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (1990). What's basic about basic emotions? Psychological Review, 97, 315-331.

28. Arnold Anger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire, despair, fear, hate, hope, love, sadness Relation to action tendencies EkmanEkman, Friesen, and EllsworthAnger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surpriseUniversal facial expressions Frijda Desire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder, sorrow Forms of action readiness GrayRage and terror, anxiety, joyHardwired Izard Anger, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, guilt, interest, joy, shame, surprise Hardwired JamesFear, grief, love, rageBodily involvement McDougall Anger, disgust, elation, fear, subjection, tender- emotion, wonder Relation to instincts MowrerPain, pleasureUnlearned emotional states Oatley and Johnson-LairdAnger, disgust, anxiety, happiness, sadnessDo not require propositional content PankseppExpectancy, fear, rage, panicHardwired Plutchik Acceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust, joy, fear, sadness, surprise Relation to adaptive biological processes Tomkins Anger, interest, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, joy, shame, surprise Density of neural firing WatsonFear, love, rageHardwired Weiner and GrahamHappiness, sadness Attribution independent

29. Basic and constructed? But are emotions not both evolved (basic and constructed? (Prinz, 2004)? What role does culture play? “While universality does not entail innateness, it can certainly provide some support.” (Prinz, 2004, p.2)

30. Embedded Appraisal Theory – the way forward? Anchored in the FORM (how they are represented) and the CONTENT of emotion (what they represent): –Emotions are the perception of bodily changes –These changes represent danger/risk –Emotions are “embodied” as they are simply the perception of bodily modification –Emotions are appraisals as they represent danger/risk/other stimulus