1. The Cathars and the Albigensian Crusade: The State and the Formation of a Persecuting Society

3. Christendom: its enemies from without and within Christendom - not just those countries or areas where the Christian faith was the religion of the majority but the idea that the Christian lands collectively formed a unified empire Ideal begins with the adoption of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire in 4 th century AD/CE – revived under Charlemagne from 8 th century onwards.

4. The state of the Church in 1000 Advent of the millennium accompanied by a belief among many that the end of the world was nigh. Signs of decay/decline/division – Corruption and immorality of papacy – Practice of simony (sale of church offices) – External threats (Vikings from the North, Magyars from the East, Abbasid Islam from South) – Schism between Eastern and Western Christian Churches (1054)

5. Challenges to Christendom 1 Internal – empire vs papacy – ‘Investiture Crisis’ 1059 Lateran synod decrees new rules for the election of the pope Gregory VII (1073-85) asserts right to excommunicate the Emperor - in response, imperial ‘anti-popes’ created Compromise on investiture worked out at Concordat of Worms in 1122 Innocent III 1198-1216 – Fourth Lateran Council forbids taxation of clergy without papal approval and prohibits lay interference in elections

6. Challenges to Christendom 2 Western Christendom vs Islam: The Crusades – 1st crusade 1095 2 nd 1147 3 rd 1187 – Crusading justified as retaliations for Seljuk Turks attacks on Byzantine lands – Better understood as an extension of the idea of milites christi – Ironically, also linked to 11thC peace movements

8. Outcomes of crusades Professor Jacques Le Goff: ‘the apricot was the only advantage gained by the West from the crusades’ Meant to help unify eastern and western churches – in fact, increased the divide Gains in the east short-lived and led to a successful Muslim counter-attack Initial aim of ‘liberating’ the Holy Land soon diverted into battles against internal enemies

9. Challenges to Christendom 3 The enemies ‘within’ – Jews, Muslims, heretics and lepers R. I. Moore’s Formation of a Persecuting Society (Oxford, 1987) Argues that aggressive campaigns against these groups NOT the result of either popular prejudice OR scale of threat Instead connected to battles over political and religious power

10. What is heresy? Heresy = unorthodox belief. Important heresy is determined by how authority defines orthodoxy. Accusations of heresy were not new – first Christian ‘heretics’ – Arians, Gnostics - denounced in the reign of Constantine (4 th century AD) But first burning at the stake of heretics in Europe occurs in Orleans, France, in 1022

11. Some medieval heretics

12. Heyday of Heresy Until mid-12 th century, most accusations of heresy arise among higher clergy After this point church and secular authorities begin a concerted campaign against heresy Laws of Henry II of England ‘assize of Clarendon’ gave harsh punishments for those who supported or gave sanctuary to heretics 1179 – Lateran Council hears reports of extent of heresy in Toulouse region Campaign stepped up by Innocent III – decree of 1199 declares heresy a form of treason 1208 Innocent sanctions a crusade against the count of Toulouse after the murder of a papal legate.

13. The Cathars Communities of Cathar believers emerge in Northern Italy but strongest in South-West France. Ideas may well have been imported from Eastern European dualist traditions – Balkan Bogomils Held to a radical dualist theology ‘two principles’ – God and Satan co-eternal Only one sacrament - consolamentum

15. Structure of Cathar Church and Worship Divided into – Perfect – those who had received the consolamentum – inc. women as well men Perfect abstain from sex and eating products of coition Perfect receive melioramentum – Believers or credentes– not admitted to consolamentum – but raise money for perfect and provide sanctuary and safe passage – give melioramentum and take part in breaking of bread.

16. Why did the Church persecute the Cathars? They attracted followers by attacking the sacraments and the wealth of Catholic church Cathar belief was distinct from and fundamentally subverted orthodox Christian doctrine Cathars – unlike Waldenses –did have their own separate church government by bishops and deacons

18. Campaign against the Cathars Albigensian crusade initiated by Pope Innocent III begun 1209 ending 1229 Surrender of count Raymond VII of Toulouse in 1229 and the subsequent Treaty of Paris led to even more effective persecution – creating a network of spies and inquisitors. March 1244, royal army besieged and took the Cathar stronghold of Montesegur, in the foothills of the Pyrenees – taking 200 or more perfect including the bishops of Toulouse and Razes By this point, Raymond VII had turned against the Cathars, and soon became an enthusiastic heretic-hunter himself - 1249 he burnt 80 suspects at Agen in just one day.*

22. The Church, the State and the Formation of a Persecuting Society Problem: most of what we know about heretics – their beliefs and activities – comes from the records of the Inquisition Even the information from these sources does not suggest they were particularly threatening to the church In one case, the Inquisition invented a heresy - Brotherhood of the Free Spirit – denounced at the Council of Vienne in 1311 Timing of campaigns against heretics linked to both Church reform movement and to Henry II’s political ambitions – especially his war against Count of Toulouse.

24. Conclusion Campaign against heretics not really about eradicating heterodox belief but asserting central religious and political authority over local Evidenced by shift in attitude from Languedoc aristocracy – Raymond VII of Toulouse Church determined to establish Gregorian reform not just in place of heretical worship but pre- Gregorian Catholicism A cultural shift too – from communities of blood to communities of faith.