1. THEORIES OF INSTRUCTION/LEARNING

2. LEV VYGOTSKY-Social Development The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.

3. LEV VYGOTSKY As an educator he felt that children were given too much to learn on their own. He felt the when novel concepts are being taught they should be under the guidance of a teacher. Cognitive development is impede when students are left to learn things on their own.

4. LEV VYGOTSKY In the class room when the teacher helps a student,the student observes the teacher’s behaviour and learn from it. The concept of providing support is called scaffolding. As students are able to complete the task on their own the help should be withdrawn

5. Implications for the theory Children should be actively involved in learning-limit chalk and talk-lessons should be meaningful Teachers should not do the cognitive work for the students but provide the necessary scaffolding –be there when help is needed Teachers should encourage social interaction Use knowledgeable peers to provide scaffold for students who are having difficulties

6. Implications for the theory Maximum cognitive development takes place when students work with caring, knowledgeable adults Hold high expectations of the students-thus demonstrating the importance of success and achievement(apart of the hidden curriculum)

7. Gagne's Theory Robert Gagne's theory of instruction is comprised of three principles: taxonomy of learning outcomes, conditions of learning, and nine events of instruction. Gagne asserts that specific learning conditions critically influence the learning outcomes. In addition, special care must be given to the external conditions during instruction, known as the nine events of instruction.taxonomy

8. Gagne's Theory Nine Events of Instruction: Gain attention Inform learners of the objectives Build on prior knowledge Present the stimulus Provide guidance Elicit performance Provide feedback Assess performance Enhance retention and transfer

9. Application of the theory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hx84h-i3w8U http://www.ettc.net/tech/adultlearning/Gagne%20Instruc tion%20sheet.pdf http://www.ettc.net/tech/adultlearning/Gagne%20Instruc tion%20sheet.pdf

10. B.F Skinner B.F. Skinner is a name associated with behaviorism, a term referring to a form of conditioning theory such as was developed by Pavlov, Watson, and then Skinner. In considering how human actions and attitudes are formed, behaviorists emphasize the processes by which behavior is formed from the external environment.

11. BF Skinner The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

12. BF Skinner Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses).

13. Implications of the Theory 1.Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps 2. Require that the learner make a response for and receive immediate feedback 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AepqpTtKbwo&feature=Pla yList&p=042CF8B200B3D4B5&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL &index=21 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AepqpTtKbwo&feature=Pla yList&p=042CF8B200B3D4B5&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL &index=21

14. Carl Rogers Rogers was discouraged by the emphasis on cognitivism in education. He believed this was responsible for the loss of excitement and enthusiasm for learning. Rogers' point of view emphasized the inclusion of feelings and emotions in education. He believed that education and therapy shared similar goals of personal change and self-knowing. He was interested in learning that leads to personal growth and development, as was Maslow.Maslow

15. Implications 1. Realness - the instructor should not present a "front" or "facade" but should strive to be aware of his/her own feelings and to communicate them in the classroom context. The instructor should present genuineness, and engage in direct personal encounters with the learner. 2. Prizing the Learner - This characteristic includes acceptance and trust of each individual student. 3. Empathic Understanding - The instructor can understand the student's reactions from the inside. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m7qwuHHTF3E

16. JEROME BRUNER-Constructivist A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".

17. PRINCIPLES OF THE THEORY 1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). 2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). 3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2H_swMUlOg&featu re=PlayList&p=C90FCB34E5F1008D&playnext=1&playnex t_from=PL&index=35 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2H_swMUlOg&featu re=PlayList&p=C90FCB34E5F1008D&playnext=1&playnex t_from=PL&index=35