1. Seizures & Epilepsy Prof.Mohammad Salah Abduljabbar

2. Outline  Definitions  Pathophysiology  Aetiology  Classification  Diagnostic approach  Treatment

3. Definition A chronic neurologic disorder manifesting by repeated epileptic seizures (attacks or fits) which result from paroxysmal uncontrolled discharges of neurons within the central nervous system (grey matter disease). The clinical manifestations range from a major motor convulsion to a brief period of lack of awareness. The stereotyped and uncontrollable nature of the attacks is characteristic of epilepsy.

4. Definition  Seizure (Convulsion) Clinical manifestation of synchronised electrical discharges of neurons  Epilepsy Present when 2 or more unprovoked seizures occur at an interval greater than 24 hours apart

5. Definition  Provoked seizures  Seizures induced by somatic disorders originating outside the brain  E.g. fever, infection, syncope, head trauma, hypoxia, toxins, cardiac arrhythmias

6. Definition  Status epilepticus (SE)  Continuous convulsion lasting longer than 30 minutes OR occurrence of serial convulsions between which there is no return of consciousness  Idiopathic SE  Seizure develops in the absence of an underlying CNS lesion/insult  Symptomatic SE  Seizure occurs as a result of an underlying neurological disorder or a metabolic abnormality

7. Aetiology of seizures  Epileptic  Idiopathic (70-80%)  Cerebral tumour  Neurodegenerative disorders  Neurocutaneous syndromes  Secondary to  Cerebral damage: e.g. congenital infections, HIE, intraventricular haemorrhage  Cerebral dysgenesis/malformation: e.g. hydrocephalus

8. Aetiology of seizures  Non-epileptic  Febrile convulsions  Metabolic  Hypoglycemia  HypoCa, HypoMg, HyperNa, HypoNa  Head trauma  Meningitis  Encephalitis  Poisons/toxins

9. Pathogenesis  The 19th century neurologist Hughlings Jackson suggested “a sudden excessive disorderly discharge of cerebral neurons“ as the causation of epileptic seizures.  Recent studies in animal models of focal epilepsy suggest a central role for the excitatory neurotransmiter glutamate (increased) and inhibitory gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) (decreased)

10. Pathophysiology  Still unknown  Some proposals:  Excitatory glutamatergic synapses  Excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter (glutamate, aspartate)  Abnormal tissues — tumor, AVM, dead area  Genetic factors  Role of substantia nigra and GABA

11. Pathophysiology  Genetic factors  At least 20 %  Some examples  Benign neonatal convulsions.  Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy.  Progressive myoclonic epilepsy.

12. Classification of seizures

13. Classification The modern classification of the epilepsies is based upon the nature of the seizures rather than the presence or absence of an underlying cause. Seizures which begin focally from a single location within one hemisphere are thus distinguished from those of a generalised nature which probably commence in a deeper structures (brainstem? thalami) and project to both hemispheres simultaneously.

14. Seizures Partial – Electrical discharges in a relatively small group of dysfunctional neurones in one cerebral hemisphere – Aura may reflect site of origin – + / - LOC Generalized – Diffuse abnormal electrical discharges from both hemispheres – Symmetrically involved – No warning – Always LOC

15. Simple Complex Partial Seizures 1. w/ motor signs 2. w/ somato- sensory symptoms 3. w/ autonomic symptoms 4. w/ psychic symptoms 1. simple partial --> loss of consciousnes s 2. w/ loss of consciousnes s at onset Secondary generalized 1. simple partial --> generalized 2. complex partial --> generalized 3. simple partial --> complex partial --> generalized

16. Focal (partial) seizures Simple partial seizures Motor, sensory, vegetative or psychic symptomato- logy Typically consciousness is preserved

17. Simple partial seizures with autonomic symptoms  Stiffness in L cheek  Difficulty in articulating  R side of mouth is dry  Salivating on the L side  Progresses to tongue and back of throat

18. Simple partial seizures with psychic symptoms  Dysphasia  Dysmnesic  Cognitive  Affective  Illusions  Structured hallucinations

19. Simple partial seizure with pyschic symptoms  Dysmnesic symptoms  “déjà-vu”  Affective symptoms  fear and panic  Cognitive  Structured hallucination  living through a scene of her former life again

20. Complex Partial Seizures  Simple partial onset followed by impaired consciousness  with or without automatism  With impairment of consciousness at onset  with impairment of consciousness only  with automatisms

21. Simple Partial Seizures followed by Complex Partial Seizures  Seizure starts from awake state  Impairment of consciousness  Automatisms  lip-smacking  right leg

22. Complex Partial Seizures with impairment of consciousness at onset  Suddenly sit up  Roll about with vehement movement

23. Partial Seizures evolving to Secondarily Generalized Seizures  Simple Partial Seizures to Generalised Seizures  Complex Partial Seizures to Generalised Seizures  Simple Partial Seizures to Complex Partial Seizures to Generalised Seizures

24. Generalized seizures (convulsive or non-convulsive) Absences Myoclonic seizures Clonic seizures Tonic seizures Atonic seizures

25. Absence seizures  Sudden onset  Interruption of ongoing activities  Blank stare  Brief upward rotation of eyes  Duration: a few seconds to 1/2 minute  Evaporates as rapidly as it started

26. Absence seizures  Stops hyperventilating  Mild eyelid clonus  Slight loss of neck muscle tone  Oral automatisms

27. Myoclonic seizures  Sudden, brief, shock-like  Predominantly around the hours of going to or awakening from sleep  May be exacerbated by volitional movement (action myoclonus)

28. Myoclonic seizures  Symmetrical myoclonic jerks

29. Clonic seizures  Repetitive biphasic jerky movements  Repetitive vocalisation synchronous with clonic movements of the chest (mechanical)  Venous injection of diazepam  Passes urine

30. Tonic seizures  Rigid violent muscle contraction  Limbs are fixed in strained position  patient stands in one place  bends forward with abducted arms  deep red face  noises - pressing air through a closed mouth

31. Tonic seizures  Elevates both hands  Extreme forward bending posture  Keeps walking without faling  Passes urine

32. Tonic-clonic seizures (grand mal) Tonic Phase  Sudden sharp tonic contraction of respiratory muscle: stridor / moan  Falls  Respiratory inhibition cyanosis  Tongue biting  Urinary incontinence Clonic Phase  Small gusts of grunting respiration  Frothing of saliva  Deep respiration  Muscle relaxation  Remains unconscious  Goes into deep sleep  Awakens feeling sore, headaches

33. Tonic-clonic seizures  Tonic stretching of arms and legs  Twitches in his face and body  Purses his lips and growls  Clonic phase

34. Atonic seizures  Sudden reduction in muscle tone  Atonic head drop

35. Epilepsy syndrome  Epilepsy syndromes may be classified according to:  Whether the associated seizures are partial or generalized  Whether the etiology is idiopathic or symptomatic/ cryptogenic  Several important pediatric syndromes can further be grouped according to age of onset and prognosis  EEG is helpful in making the diagnosis  Children with particular syndromes show signs of slow development and learning difficulties from an early age

36. CategoryLocalization-relatedGeneralized IdiopathicBenign epilepsy of childhood with centrotemporal spikes (benign rolandic epilepsy) Benign occipital epilepsy Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infancy Childhood absence epilepsy Juvenile absence epilepsy Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy Symptomatic (of underlying structural disease) Temporal lobe Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Early myoclonic encephalopathy Cortical dysgenesis Metabolic abnormalities West syndrome Lennox-Gastaut syndrome CryptogenicAny occurrence of partial seizures without obvious pathology Epilepsy with myoclonic absences West syndrome (with unidentified pathology) Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (with unidentified pathology) Table 1. Modified ILAE Classification of Epilepsy Syndromes

37. Special syndromesFebrile convulsions Seizures occurring only with toxic or metabolic provoking factors Neonatal seizures of any etiology Acquired epileptic aphasia (Landau-Kleffner syndrome) Table 1. Modified ILAE Classification of Epilepsy Syndromes (cond’)

38. common epilepsy syndromes 1. Benign childhood epilepsy 2. Childhood absence epilepsy 3. Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy Devastating catastrophic epileptic syndromes 1. West syndrome 2. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome 3. Landau Kleffner Syndrome

39. Benign childhood epilepsy with centrotemporal spike (Benign Rolandic Epilepsy) 1. Typical seizure affects mouth, face, +/- arm. Speech arrest if dominant hemisphere, consciousness often preserved, may generalize especially when nocturnal, infrequent and easily controlled 2. Onset is around 3-13 years old, good respond to medication, always remits by mid-adolescence

40. West’s syndrome (infantile spasms) Triad: 1. infantile spasms 2. arrest of psychomotor development 3. hypsarrhythmia  Spasms may be flexor, extensor, lightning, nods, usually mixed. Peak onset 4-7 months, always before 1 year. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome Characterized by seizure, mental retardation and psychomotor slowing Three main type: 1. tonic 2. atonic 3. atypical absence Landau- Kleffner syndrome ( acquired aphasia )

41. Diagnosis in epilepsy  Aims:  Differentiate between events mimicking epileptic seizures  E.g. syncope, vertigo, migraine, psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES)  Confirm the diagnosis of seizure (or possibly associated syndrome) and the underlying etiology

42. Epilepsy Differential Diagnosis The following should be considered in the diff. dg. of epilepsy:  Syncope attacks (when pt. is standing; results from global reduction of cerebral blood flow; prodromal pallor, nausea, sweating; jerks!)  Cardiac arrythmias (e.g. Adams-Stokes attacks). Prolonged arrest of cardiac rate will progressively lead to loss of consciousness – jerks!  Migraine (the slow evolution of focal hemisensory or hemimotor symptomas in complicated migraine contrasts with more rapid “spread“ of such manifestation in SPS. Basilar migraine may lead to loss of consciousness!  Hypoglycemia – seizures or intermittent behavioral disturbances may occur.  Narcolepsy – inappropriate sudden sleep episodes  Panic attacks  PSEUDOSEIZURES – psychosomatic and personality disorders

43. Diagnosis in epilepsy  Approach:  History (from patient and witness)  Physical examination  Investigations

44. History  Event  Localization  Temporal relationship  Factors  Nature  Associated features  Past medical history  Developmental history  Drug and immunization history  Family history  Social history

45. Physical Examination  General  esp. syndromal or non-syndromal dysmorphic features, neurocutaneous features  Neurological  Other system as indicated  E.g. Febrile convulsion, infantile spasm

46. Investigation The concern of the clinician is that epilepsy may be symptomatic of a treatable cerebral lesion. Routine investigation: Haematology, biochemistry (electrolytes, urea and calcium), chest X-ray, electroencephalogram (EEG). Neuroimaging (CT/MRI) should be performed in all persons aged 25 or more presenting with first seizure and in those pts. with focal epilepsy irrespective of age. Specialised neurophysiological investigations: Sleep deprived EEG, video-EEG monitoring. Advanced investigations (in pts. with intractable focal epilepsy where surgery is considered): Neuropsychology, Semiinvasive or invasive EEG recordings, MR Spectroscopy, Positron emission tomography (PET) and ictal Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

47. Investigations  I. Exclusion of differentials:  Bedside: urinalysis  Haematological: CBP  Biochemical: U&Es, Calcium, glucose, ABGs  Radiological: CXR, CT head  Toxicological: screen  Microbiological: LP (Always used with justification)

48. Investigations  II. Confirmation of epilepsy:  Dynamic investigations : result changes with attacks  E.g. EEG  Static investigations : result same between and during attacks  E.g. Brain scan

49. Electroencephalography (EEG)  EEG indicated whenever epilepsy suspected  Uses of EEG in epilepsy  Diagnostic: support diagnosis, classify seizure, localize focus, quantify  Prognostic: adjust anti-epileptic treatment

50. International 10-20 System of Electrode Placement in EEG

51. Electroencephalography (EEG)  EEG interpretation in epilepsy  Hemispheric or lobar asymmetries  Periodic (regular, recurring)  Background activity:  Slow or fast  Focal or generalized  Paroxysmal activity:  Epileptiform features – spikes, sharp waves  Interictal or ictal  Spontaneous or triggered

52. Electroencephalography (EEG)  E.g. Brief absence seizure in an 18-year-old patient with primary generalized epilepsy

53. Electroencephalography (EEG)  Note:  Normal in 10-20% of epileptic patients  Background slowed by:  AED, diffuse cerebral process, postictal state  Artifact from:  Eye rolling, tremor, other movement, electrodes  Interpreted in the light of proximity to seizure

54. Neuroimaging  Structural neuroimaging  Functional neuroimaging

55. Structural Neuroimaging  Who should have a structural neuroimaging?  Status epilepticus or acute, severe epilepsy  Develop seizures when > 20 years old  Focal epilepsy (unless typical of benign focal epilepsy syndrome)  Refractory epilepsy  Evidence of neurocutaneous syndrome

56. Structural Neuroimaging  Modalities available:  Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)  Computerized Tomography (CT)  What sort of structural scan?  MRI better than CT  CT usually adequate if to exclude large tumor  MRI not involve ionizing radiation  I.e. not affect fetus in pregnant women (but nevertheless avoided if possible)

57. Functional Neuroimaging  Principles in diagnosis of epilepsy:  When a region of brain generates seizure, its regional blood flow, metabolic rate and glucose utilization increase  After seizure, there is a decline to below the level of other brain regions throughout the interictal period

58. Functional Neuroimaging  Modalities available:  Positron Emission Tomography (PET)  Single Photon Emission Computerized Tomography (SPECT)  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)  Mostly used in:  Planning epilepsy surgery  Identifying epileptogenic region  Localizing brain function

59. Venn Diagram

60. Seizure Therapy AnticonvulsantSurgery Specific Treatments Reassurance and Education General Treatment Seizure

61. Education & Support  Information leaflets and information about support group  Avoidance of hazardous physical activities  Management of prolonged fits  Recovery position  Rectal diazepam  Side effects of anticonvulsants

62. Treatment  The majority of pts respond to drug therapy (anticonvulsants). In intractable cases surgery may be necessary. The treatment target is seizure- freedom and improvement in quality of life!  The commonest drugs used in clinical practice are: Carbamazepine, Sodium valproate, Lamotrigine (first line drugs) Levetiracetam, Topiramate, Pregabaline (second line drugs) Zonisamide, Eslicarbazepine, Retigabine (new AEDs)  Basic rules for drug treatment: Drug treatment should be simple, preferably using one anticonvulsant (monotherapy). “Start low, increase slow“. Add-on therapy is necessary in some patients…

63. Treatment If pt is seizure-free for three years, withdrawal of pharmacotherapy should be considered. Withdrawal should be carried out only if pt is satisfied that a further attack would not ruin employment etc. (e.g. driving licence). It should be performed very carefully and slowly! 20% of pts will suffer a further sz within 2 yrs. The risk of teratogenicity is well known (~5%), especially with valproates, but withdrawing drug therapy in pregnancy is more risky than continuation. Epileptic females must be aware of this problem and thorough family planning should be recommended. Over 90% of pregnant women with epilepsy will deliver a normal child.

64. Anticonvulsants  Suppress repetitive action potentials in epileptic foci in the brain  Sodium channel blockade  GABA-related targets  Calcium channel blockade  Others: neuronal membrane hyperpolarisation

65. Anticonvulsants Cabamazepine Phenytoin Valproic acid Tonic-clonic and partial Ethosuximide Valproic acid Clonazepam Absence seizures Valproic acid Clonazepam Myoclonic seizures Diazepam Lorazepam Short term control Phenytoin Phenobarbital Prolonged therapy Status Epilepticus Corticotropin Corticosteroids Infantile Spasms Drugs used in seizure disorders

66. Adverse Effects  Teratogenicity  Neural tube defects  Fetal hydantoin syndrome  Overdosage toxicity  Life-threatening toxicity  Hepatotoxicity  Stevens-Johnson syndrome  Abrupt withdrawal

67. Medical Intractability  No known universal definition  Risk factors  High seizure frequency  Early seizure onset  Organic brain damage  Established after adequate drug trials  Operability

68. Surgery  Curative  Catastrophic unilateral or secondary generalised epilepsies of infants and young children  Sturge-Weber syndrome  Large unilateral developmental abnormalities  Palliative  Vagal nerve stimulation

69. Surgical Treatment A proportion of the pts with intractable epilepsy will benefit from surgery. Epilepsy surgery procedures: Curative (removal of epileptic focus) and palliative (seizure-related risk decrease and improvement of the QOL) Curative (resective) procedures: Anteromesial temporal resection, selective amygdalohippocampectomy, extensive lesionectomy, cortical resection, hemispherectomy. Palliative procedures: Corpus callosotomy and Vagal nerve stimulation (VNS).

70. Surgical Outcome  Medical Intractability  A well-localised epileptogenic zone  EEG, MRI  Low risk of new post-operative deficits

71. Status Epilepticus A condition when consciousness does not return between seizures for more than 30 min. This state may be life-threatening with the development of pyrexia, deepening coma and circullatory collapse. Death occurs in 5-10%. Status epilepticus may occur with frontal lobe lesions (incl. strokes), following head injury, on reducing drug therapy, with alcohol withdrawal, drug intoxication, metabolic disturbances or pregnancy.

72. Aetiology of Status Epilepticus  Prolonged febrile seizure  Most common cause  Idiopathic status epilepticus  Non-compliance to anti-convulsants  Sudden withdrawal of anticonvulsants  Sleep deprivation  Intercurrent infection  Symptomatic status epilepticus  Anoxic encephalopathy  Encephalitis, meningitis  Congenital malformations of the brain  Electrolyte disturbances, drug/lead intoxication, extreme hyperpyrexia, brain tumor

73. Treatment Treatment: AEDs intravenously ASAP, event. general anesthesia with propofol or thipentone should be commenced immediately.

74. References 1. Stedman’s Medical Dictionary. 2. MDConsult: Nelson’s textbook. 3. Illustrated Textbook of Pediatrics. 4. Video atlas of epileptic seizures – Classical examples, International League against epilepsy. 5. Guberman AH, Bruni J, 1999, Essentials of Clinical Epilepsy, 2 nd edn. Butterworth Heinemann. 6. Manford M, 2003, Practical Guide to Epilepsy, Butterworth Heinemann.