1. © Cambridge University Press 2014 WAS THERE AN ANCIENT ISRAEL? In our study of the Torah, we concluded … The narratives contain “clues” that hint at genuine ancient memories Behind the narratives is the assumption of historical events – a conviction that something really happened But we cannot confirm or even date these events with any historical precision What about the rest of Israel’s history?

2. © Cambridge University Press 2014 DISCUSSION Was there an ancient Israel? How should we approach the question?

3. © Cambridge University Press 2014 APPROACHES TO THE QUESTION 1.Archaeology Preferred – Assumes the OT was composed in the Persian period of later, so it cannot be trusted in historical matters. 2.Old Testament Preferred – Assumes the OT accurately records the history of ancient Israel, so it can be trusted in historical matters. It may be backed up by archaeology. 3.Balanced Approach – Acknowledges that both the Old Testament texts and archaeological tells must be interpreted, so it strives for balance

4. © Cambridge University Press 2014 THE TALE OF A TELL A tell is … An artificial hill containing material remains of human occupation accumulated in successive layers over centuries of time The oldest layers, or strata, are at the bottom and the newest layers are on the top of the tell Each stratum marks a period of occupation history

5. © Cambridge University Press 2014 THE TALE OF A TELL Archaeologists … Explore the successive layers to learn about the site and the people who lived there Excavate by dividing the surface into squares and digging each square to a certain depth Use pottery and other evidence to coordinate the layers to those of other tells to develop a relative chronology May also dig trenches or survey the surface

6. © Cambridge University Press 2014 TELL OF BETH-SHEAN Bill T. Arnold; image reference: CH11_1_BethShan; photo credit: “courtesy of Bill T. Arnold”

7. © Cambridge University Press 2014 LIMITS OF ARCHAELOGY Archaeology has not succeeded in settling our most important questions about ancient Israel 1.Most discoveries seldom prove more than someone existed 2.Archaeological evidence needs interpretation and scholars often disagree how 3.Archaeology cannot prove religious claims 4.It is an indispensable tool but it is not our only source for ancient Israel’s history

8. © Cambridge University Press 2014 TEXT AND TELL AT JERICHO Text …. Jericho was a large enough site to have a king and to be fortified by walls As a result of Israel’s obedience to Yahweh’s unusual military instructions, these walls fell down The Israelites charged into the city, captured it and burned everything in it

9. © Cambridge University Press 2014 TEXT AND TELL AT JERICHO Tell …. Excavations in the 1930s uncovered a violent destruction layer dated to the Late Bronze Age In the 1950s other excavations discovered the destruction layers should have been dated to the Middle Bronze Age Most now agree the city was not fortified and may not have been occupied at the end of the LBA (i.e. the time of Joshua)

10. © Cambridge University Press 2014 TEXT AND TELL AT JERICHO Text and Tell Revisited … “King” can designate a simple local leader There is some evidence of Late Bronze occupation Most of the remains appear to have been eroded by natural elements or removed Middle Bronze fortifications may have been reused by Late Bronze inhabitants

11. © Cambridge University Press 2014 ANCIENT JERICHO Art Resource; image reference: ART 26298; photo credit: “Erich Lessing / Art Resource, NY”

12. © Cambridge University Press 2014 DISCUSSION What can / should we conclude from the text and tell at Jericho?

13. © Cambridge University Press 2014 RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY We have specific dates for few events in Israel’s history Only at the turn of the 7 th century (701 BCE) do we begin having fixed dates So we use what evidence we have to create a relative chronology for the history of ancient Israel

14. © Cambridge University Press 2014 RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY I.Ancestral Beginnings Shadowy Figures Perhaps rooted in the Middle Bronze Age (2000- 1550 BCE) I.Deliverance from Egypt & Covenant at Sinai Perhaps 13 th century BCE

15. © Cambridge University Press 2014 RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY III. Conquest of the Promised Land Israel appears in the late 13 th century BCE Military conquest, Peaceful infiltration, Social Transformation? Every theory must take the Merneptah Stela seriously OT asserts that Israel entered the Promised Land 40 years after the Exodus

16. © Cambridge University Press 2014 RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY IV. Tumultuous Period of Judges-Rule Prior to the Monarchy Early Iron I (ca. 1200 – 1025 BCE) Judges lived simultaneously V. United Monarchy High Chronology: 1025 – 922 BCE Low Chronology: 9 th century BCE

17. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HIGH VS. LOW CHRONOLOGY Some scholars re-date the strata from the tenth century BCE to the ninth century BCE. This “low chronology” places the emersion of Israelite statehood in the northern empire of Omri Relies heavily on a lack of evidence for a 10 th century state centered in Jerusalem, and assumes the city was an insignificant village Assumes OT narratives are pure fiction

18. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HIGH VS. LOW CHRONOLOGY But … Jerusalem was an important city-state as early as the 14 th century BCE It has been continuously occupied for nearly 6000 years, making it impossible to excavate systematically OT texts contain enough clues to suggest they are at least preserving historical traditions

19. © Cambridge University Press 2014 RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY VI. Two Kingdoms, Israel and Judah Israel: 922 – 722 BCE Judah: 922 – 586 BCE VII. Exile and Restoration 586 BCE – mid-fifth century BCE Nabonidus/Babylonian Chronicle details Babylon’s Fall to Persia in October 539 BCE Cyrus Cylinder describes his victory and his policy toward Babylon’s subjects; this inscription is compatible with the OT accounts

20. © Cambridge University Press 2014 NABONIDUS CHRONICLE British Museum; image reference: AN 35382 (00032579001); photo credit: “©The Trustees of the British Museum”

21. © Cambridge University Press 2014 CYRUS CYLINDER Art Resource; ART182166; photo credit: “©The Trustees of the British Museum / Art Resource, NY”

22. © Cambridge University Press 2014 DISCUSSION So was there an “ancient Israel”?

23. © Cambridge University Press 2014 WAS THERE AN ANCIENT ISRAEL We may safely say there was an ancient Israel It was not the idealized Israel of the OT in many respects. But “Israel” was in the Southern Levant from the Iron I period until 586 BCE Our inability to date many of the events illustrates that the OT authors were less interested in writing formal history than they were in expressing their theological and religious ideas.

24. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HISTORY OF ISRAELITE RELIGION Three Levels of Religion 1.Official Religion 2.Family Religion 3.Local Religion These three often overlap at significant points. The family and local expressions of Israel’s religion have more in common with other ANE religions. The OT was written and preserved by members of the official religion.

25. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HISTORY OF ISRAELITE RELIGION I.Ancestral Beginnings Family religion that interacted with local Canaanite religion Worshipped in open-air sanctuaries made up of an altar, sacred tree and a standing stone Knew God by several names and worshipped at several local sanctuaries

26. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HISTORY OF ISRAELITE RELIGION II. Deliverance & Covenant Mosaic religion begins in open-air sanctuary with the burning bush; similar to ancestors Yahweh appears to have been the deity of a family religion practiced by Moses’ father-in-law Established of laws and a Tabernacle reflect the move from family religion to official religion

27. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HISTORY OF ISRAELITE RELIGION III-IV. Conquest & Judges-Rule Covenant renewal at Shechem in an open-air sanctuary with standing stone and oak tree Continued the process of nationalizing the worship of Yahweh as the official religion An annual pilgrimage festival was celebrated at Shiloh Prophecy emerges as an important feature as Samuel unifies the people in Yahweh worship

28. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HISTORY OF ISRAELITE RELIGION V. United Monarchy The religion of Yahweh completes the move from a family religion to an official state religion The ark is transferred from Shiloh to Jerusalem A new Temple is constructed for Yahweh, who is now identified as the God of Israel Prophets remain an important feature; their teaching is generally limited to the kings

29. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HISTORY OF ISRAELITE RELIGION VI. Two Kingdoms Religious differences emerge between the northern and southern kingdoms Israel allows syncretism of older local Canaanite religion alongside the worship of Yahweh; this is the focus of the Elijah & Elisha’s prophetic critique Prophets began addressing the people and preserving their preaching in writing

30. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HISTORY OF ISRAELITE RELIGION VI. Two Kingdoms Continued Prophets believed faith in Yahweh had ethical implications for every Israelite Prophets also believed in the universalism of Yahweh’s power In the south, Hezekiah and Judah both instituted religious reforms to eliminate local and family traditions

31. © Cambridge University Press 2014 HISTORY OF ISRAELITE RELIGION VII. Exile and Restoration Prophets of the Exile taught that Yahweh was sovereign over other deities and he was present with the people wherever they were Second Isaiah articulated genuine universal monotheism Yahweh is God and there is no others