1. Chapter 9
CAPACITOR

2. Objectives
Describe the basic structure and characteristics of a capacitor
Discuss various types of capacitors
Analyze series capacitors
Analyze parallel capacitors
Analyze capacitive dc switching circuits
Analyze pulse response of RC circuit

3. Basics of a Capacitor
In its simplest form, a capacitor is an electrical device constructed of two parallel plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric.
In the neutral state, both plates have an equal number of free electrons.
When a voltage source is connected to the capacitor, electrons are removed from one plated and deposited on the other.
No electrons flow through the dielectric.

4. Basics of a Capacitor

5. How a Capacitor Stores Energy
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established by the opposite charges on the two plates.
A capacitor obeys Coulomb’s Law:
A force exists between two point-source charges that is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.
F = k Q1Q2 / d2

6. C in DC circuit

7. Capacitors in DC Circuits
A capacitor will charge up when it is connected to a dc voltage source.
When a capacitor is fully charged, there is no current.
There is no current through the dielectric of the capacitor because the dielectric is an insulating material.
A capacitor blocks constant dc.

8. Series Capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than the smallest capacitance value since the effective plate separation increases.
1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + … + 1/Cn

9. Parallel Capacitors
The total parallel capacitance is the sum of all capacitors in parallel.
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + … + Cn

10. RC Time Constant
The buildup of charge across the plates occurs in a predictable manner that is dependent on the capacitance and the resistance in a circuit.
The time constant of a series RC circuit is a time interval that equals the product of the resistance and the capacitance.
 = RC

11. Charging and Discharging
The charging curve is an increasing exponential.
The discharging curve is an decreasing exponential.

12. Transient time
It takes 5 time constants to change the voltage by 99% (charging or discharging), this is called the transient time.

13. Pulse response of C

14. The Capacitor Voltage

15. THE RC INTEGRATOR Charging and Discharging of a capacitor
NOTE : 1. The capacitor appears as a short to an instantaneous change in current and as an open to dc.
2. The voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously; it can change only exponentially.

16. SINGLE-PULSE RESPONSE OF RC INTEGRATORS
Two conditions of pulse response must be considered:
When the input pulse width (tw ) is greater than five time constants
(tw )
Insert pic. 15-5

17. SINGLE-PULSE RESPONSE OF RC INTEGRATORS
When the input pulse width is less than five time constants ( )
Insert pic. 15-6
Insert pic. 15-7

18. REPETITIVE-PULSE RESPONSE OF RC INTEGRATORS
If a periodic pulse waveform is applied to an RC integrator, the output waveshape depends on the relationship of the circuit time constant and the frequency of the input pulse.
Insert pic

19. When a capacitor does not fully charge and discharge
When the pulse width and the time between pulses are shorter than 5 time constant the capacitor will not completely charge or discharge. (exp(-1)=0.3679)
Figure 15-15

20. Steady-state response
When a steady-state condition is reached (t > ), the output voltage build up to a constant average value
Figure 15-16

21. The effect of an increase in time constant
As the time constant is increased, the capacitor charges less during a pulse and discharges less between pulses. If it becomes extremely long compared to the pulse width, the output voltage approaches a constant dc voltage.
Figure 15-18

22. SINGLE-PULSE REPONSE OF RC DIFFERENTIATORS
The output voltage is taken across the resistor.
The capacitor charges exponentially at a rate depending on the RC time constant.
Figure 15-21

23. Pulse Response of the differentiator
The response to the rising pulse edge
The response between the rising and the falling edges
The response to the falling pulse edge

24. Pulse Response of the differentiator

25. Summary of RC Differentiator Response to a Single Pulse
Figure 15-23

26. REPETITIVE-PULSE RESPONSE OF RC DIFFERENTIATORS
Figure 15-28

27. Analysis of a Repetitive waveform
Figure

28. Capacitor Applications
Capacitors are used in timing circuits to generate time delays, based on the RC time constant.
Dynamic memories used in computers are simply very tiny capacitors used as a storage element.
Pulse signal to DC converter

29. RC Circuit Application
RC time delay
RC-DC converter

30. C in AC circuit
(Sine wave)

31. Capacitive Reactance, XC
The relationship between capacitive reactance, capacitance and frequency is:
XC = 1/(2 f C)
where: XC is in ohms ()
f is in hertz (Hz)
C is in farads (F)

32. Capacitive Reactance, XC
Capacitive reactance (XC) is the opposition to sinusoidal current, expressed in ohms.
The rate of change of voltage is directly related to frequency.
As the frequency increases, the rate of change of voltage increases, and thus current ( i ) increases.
An increase in i means that there is less opposition to current (XC is less). XC is inversely proportional to i and to frequency.

33. Capacitors in ac Circuits
The instantaneous capacitor current is equal to the capacitance times the instantaneous rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor.
This rate of change is a maximum positive when the rising sine wave crosses zero.
This rate of change is a maximum negative when the falling sine wave crosses zero.
The rate of change is zero at the maximum and minimum of the sine wave.

34. Analysis of Capacitive ac Circuit
The current leads the voltage by 90 in a purely capacitive ac circuit.
The resulting current can be expressed in polar form as I90 or in rectangular form as jI.

35. Power in a Capacitor
Energy is stored by the capacitor during a portion of the voltage cycle; then the stored energy is returned to the source during another portion of the cycle.
Instantaneous power is the product of v and i .
True power (Ptrue) is zero, since no energy is consumed by the capacitor.
The rate at which a capacitor stores or returns energy is called reactive power (Pr); units: (VAR).
Pr=VrmsIrms ; Pr = V2rms / Xc ; Pr = I2rms Xc

36. Capacitor Applications
Capacitors are used for filtering in power supplies.
Since capacitors do not pass dc, they are used for dc blocking and ac coupling.
For power line decoupling, capacitors are connected between the dc supply and ground, to suppress unwanted voltage spikes that occur on the dc supply voltage due to fast switching.
Capacitors are used to bypass an ac voltage around a resistor without affecting the dc resistance.
Capacitors are used in filters, to select one ac signal with a certain specified frequency from a wide range of signals with many different frequencies. For example, the selection of one radio station and rejecting the others.

37. Filtering in Power supply

38. DC Blocking or AC coupling

39. Summary
Capacitance is directly proportional to the plate area and inversely proportional to the plate separation.
Dielectric constant is an indication of the ability of a material to establish an electric field.
Dielectric strength is one factor that determines the breakdown voltage of a capacitor.
A capacitor blocks constant dc.

40. Summary
A capacitor is composed of two parallel conducting plates separated by a dielectric insulator.
Energy is stored by a capacitor in the electric field between the plates.
One farad is the amount of capacitance when one coulomb of charge is stored with one volt across the plates.

41. Summary
The time constant for a series RC circuit is the resistance times the capacitance.
In an RC circuit, the voltage and current in a charging or discharging capacitor make a 63% change during each time-constant interval.
5 time constants are required of a capacitor to fully charge or to discharge fully. This is called the transient time.
Charging and discharging are exponential curves.

42. Summary
Total series capacitance is less than that of the smallest capacitor in series.
Capacitance adds in parallel.
Current leads voltage by 90 in a capacitor.
XC is inversely proportional to frequency and capacitance.
The true power in a capacitor is zero; that is, there is no energy loss in an ideal capacitor.