1. New Directions in Thought and Culture in the 16 th and 17 th Centuries

2. The Scientific Revolution Scientific revolution > not rapid – New view of the universe “new” science > not everything necessarily new – Involved old knowledge along with new discoveries This time period – No term “scientist” – No career in science – Natural philosophy pursuit was an informal one New knowledge emerged in – Medicine – Chemistry – Natural history – Astronomy Showed the cultural power of natural knowledge (captured imagination)

3. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) Polish priest & astronomer Famous work >On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) Challenged position of earth in the universe Heliocentric versus Geocentric view of the solar system – Conservatively challenged – Ptolemaic/Aristotelian models in use since antiquity Copernican system no more accurate than Ptolemaic (positions of the planets) – Important as a new paradigm – Slow to gain ground > few embraced it during his time

4. Tyco Brahe (1546–1601) Danish astronomer Rejected Copernican view – believed earth at center Some planets did revolve around the earth & sun Recorded vast body of astronomical data from which others will use (Kepler) – Constructed instruments for more extensive naked eye observations

5. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) German astronomer, Brahe’s assistant Advocated Copernican view Figured out planets move in elliptical, not circular, orbits (epicycles) Published New Astronomy – Solves planetary motion Discovers problem > Why did planets move the way they did? What kept them from floating off?

6. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) Italian mathematician & natural philosopher Broke ground using telescope found heavens much more complex than previously understood Became high-profile Copernican advocate in Starry Messenger Letters on Sunspots Runs into problems with the Catholic Church Articulated concept of a universe governed by mathematical laws Universe was rational through math not logic Mathematical evidence > irrefutable

7. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) Mathematical genius Set out to explain reasons for planetary motion Wrote Principia Mathematica (1687) Explains laws of gravity All physical objects in the universe move through mutual attraction (gravity); explained planetary orbits Explained gravity mathematically Must observe & compile data before you explain (empiricism) Est. a basis for physics

8. Nature as Mechanism New Science sought to explain things through mechanical metaphors (language of machinery) –R–Removed presence of a divine force in nature Universe similar to a clock Nature explained through mathematics Purpose of studying nature changes: –s–search for symbolic/sacramental meaning  search for usefulness/utility –p–path to salvation  path to human physical improvement

9. FRANCIS BACON (1561–1626) English lawyer, government official, historian, essayist Considered father of empiricism, scientific experimentation Created a climate conducive to scientific work Attacked scholastics for paying too much attention to tradition instead look for new understanding One of the first European writers to champion innovation and change as goals contributing to human improvement Bacon/Columbus > new route to intellectual discovery Links science and material progress

10. RENÉ DESCARTES (1596–1650) Gifted mathematician, inventor of analytic geometry Most important contribution: scientific method relying more on deduction (deriving specific facts from general principles) than empiricism Discourse on Method (1637)—rejection of scholastic philosophy and education in favor of mathematical models; rejection of all intellectual authority except his own reason Concluded (God-given) human reason was sufficient to comprehend the world Lost favor to scientific induction (hypothesis and empirical observation)

12. THOMAS HOBBES (1588–1679) Most original political philosopher of 17th c. Enthusiastic supporter of New Science Turmoil of English Civil War motivated his Leviathan (1651) Rigorous philosophical justification for absolutist government Humans not basically social, but basically self- centered Motivation > increase pleasure & decrease pain State of nature is a state of war Inevitable conflict Need a political authority to limit pursuit of self- interest Form a political contract

13. John Locke (1632–1704) Most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th c. Contrast with Hobbes Humans > creatures of reason & basic goodwill First Treatise of Government: compares political authority to patriarchal model (father head of house) Second Treatise of Government: government as necessarily responsible for and responsive to the governed State of freedom and equality Letter Concerning Toleration (1689): argument for religious toleration Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): described human mind as birth as a “blank slate” with content to be determined by sensory experience— reformist view, rejects Christian concept of original sin Conflict occurs at the failure of the ruler

14. The Rise of Academic Societies New natural knowledge sought to pursue the advancement of learning Knowledge > continuously created Need new institutions in order to keep up The New Science opposed Scholasticism & Aristotelianism and was slow to gain ground in universities Establishment of “institutions of sharing” Royal Society of London (1660) Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657) French Academy of Science (1666) Berlin Academy of Science (1700) New science would eventually impact Europe socially, politically, and religiously Paves the way for the Enlightenment 18 th c.

15. Women in the Scientific Revolution Same factors that excluded women in intellectual life excluded them from scientific rev. Universities will exclude women into the 19 th c. Exceptions Queen Christina of Sweden Brought Rene Descartes to Stockholm to provide regulations for new science academy Margaret Cavendish Attended Royal Society of London & made contributions to scientific literature Maria Winkelmann Discovers a comet in 1702 Some women that did engage in new science Noblewomen and women from the artisan class did so through their husbands Women’s mind seen as essentially different from, and inferior to, men

16. New Science and Religion Three major issues: Certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with Scripture Who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural philosophers? New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant universe with purely material one. Natural Philosophers saw their work supporting religion by understanding the divine better Controversy Representative incident: Roman Catholic authorities condemn Galileo, 1633—under house arrest for last nine years of his life Catholic Inquisition places Copernicus’s On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres on Index of Prohibited Books, 1616 Roman Catholic Church formally admits errors of biblical interpretation in Galileo’s case, 1992

17. Attempts to Reconcile Reason & Faith Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French mathematician Most influential efforts to reconcile faith Opponent of Jesuits, Proponent of Jansenists “leap of faith” God improved life psychologically & disciplined it morally Francis Bacon Two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature Since both books share the same author, they must be compatible Economics: technological and economic innovation seen as part of a divine plan—man is to understand world and then put it into productive rational use

18. Continuing Superstition Belief in magic and the occult persisted through the end of the 17th c. Witch-hunts: 70,000–100,000 put to death, 1400–1700; 80% women Reasons Religious division and warfare Reformation Political consolidation by secular govts. Papacy Village society: Magic helped cope with natural disasters and disabilities Christian clergy: Practiced high magic (Eucharist, Penance, Confession, Exorcism) Witches? Widows, Midwives, and Woman healers & herbalists Women started breaking from male control Conspiracy > males against females

19. Baroque Art Baroque used to describe 17th c. painting, sculpture, architecture Variety of styles emerge Subjects depicted in naturalistic rather than idealized manner Most Famous Michelangelo Caravaggio (1573–1610) Uses sharp contrast of light and darkness Draws in a viewers emotions into the artwork Baroque artists served religious and secular ends Usually associated with Roman Catholicism Emerged in Papal Rome Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s work in St. Peter’s Basilica is an ex. Most elaborate baroque monument Louis XIV’s Palace of Versailles