1. Learning Unit VI

2. Unit 6: Learning

3. Unit 06 - Overview How We Learn and Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical ConditioningOperant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning Biology, Cognition, and Learning Learning By Observation

4. Module 26: How We Learn and Classical Conditioning

6. How Do We Learn?

7. Overview: There are many different types of learning. Learning is commonly defined as a long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience. Learning can be measured through behavior. Brief changes are not indicative of learning. If behavior changes for a short time afterward, we would not want to attribute this effect to learning. In addition, learning must result from experience rather than any kind of innate or biological change.

8. Examples of Learning Complete Thomas Rocklin’s Handout 6-2 – Hilgard and Bower’s definition of learning: learning refers to the relatively permanent change in a person’s behavior to a given situation brought about by his (or her) repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the person or other animal (e.g., fatigue, drugs, etc.).

9. Examples of Learning Rocklin reports that applying the definition yields fairly clear- cut answers for the 10 events except item (8), the computer program. Students generally contend that a computer cannot “learn” because it “does only what it is programmed to do.” What words come to mind when you think of the process of learning? Western students tend to see learning as a matter of understanding the essentials of a given topic or developing expertise in a field. When they succeed they feel proud; when they fail they feel disappointment. Eastern students learn mainly to perfect themselves morally and socially.

10. How Do We Learn? Learning Habituation Stimulus Associative learning –Classical conditioningClassical conditioning –Operant conditioningOperant conditioning –Cognitive learningCognitive learning Observational learning

11. How Do We Learn? Learning –the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. – Learning helps us adapt to our environment. – Learned associations often operate subtly.

12. How Do We Learn? Habituation –an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. Learned associations also feed our habitual behaviors. With habituation we eventually lose our sensitivity to an oft- repeated stimulus. Once habituation occurs, we will have reduced sensitivity to that stimulus, even if the stimulus changes.

13. Adaptation – Occurs when we get used to a continuous, unchanging stimulus. As long as the stimulus is unchanging, we will eventually not notice it at all. When the stimulus changes, however, our sensitivity to the stimulus will go back to original levels. In short, Adaptation is recoverable. Habituation is not.

14. How Do We Learn? Cognitive learning –the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language Observational learning - learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

15. How Do We Learn? Associative learning –learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning). Stimulus –any event or situation that evokes a response. Associative learning is the blanket term for all the types of conditioning discussed in the unit. The two main forms of conditioning are, Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning.

16. How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning

22. How Do We Learn? Operant Conditioning

26. Classical Conditioning

27. Behaviorism –the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). –Ivan Pavlov laid the foundation for Watson –John B. Watson

28. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning –a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. People and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one.

29. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments Ivan Pavlov a Russian Psychologist, inadvertently discovered a kind of learning while studying digestion in dogs. He found that the dogs learned to pair the sounds in the environment where they were fed with the food that was given to them and they would begin to salivate simply upon hearing the sounds. As a result he deduced the basic principle of Classical Conditioning

30. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments Parts of Classical Conditioning –Neutral Stimulus (NS)Neutral Stimulus (NS) –Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned stimulus (US) –Unconditioned response (UR)Unconditioned response (UR) –Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS) –Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR)

31. Parts of Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus (NS)Neutral Stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

32. Parts of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response (UR). The original stimulus that elicits a response is known as the US or UCS. In the Pavlovian paradigm, the US is Food. Food elicits the natural involuntary response of salivation.

33. Parts of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UR)Unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. The involuntary response of salivation is called the UR or UCR. Through repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus such as a bell, animals will come to associate the two stimuli together.

34. Parts of Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). Ultimately, animals will salivate when hearing the bell alone. Once the bell elicits salivation, a CR, it is no longer a neutral stimulus but rather a CS.

35. Parts of Classical Conditioning Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). =

36. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments

41. Classical Conditioning

44. Classical Conditioning Acquisition Acquisition –in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. Learning has taken place once the animals respond to the CS without the presentation of the US. This learning is AKA Acquisition since the animals have acquired a new behavior. Many factors affect acquisition. For instance, up to a point, repeated pairings of CSs and USs yield stronger CRs. The order and timing of the CS and US pairings also have an impact on strength of conditioning. Generally the most effective method is to present the CS first and then to introduce the US while the CS is still evident.

45. Classical Conditioning Acquisition Acquisition occurs fastest if bell is rung and, while it is still ringing, the dogs are presented with food. This procedure is known as Delayed conditioning. Less effective methods of learning include: – Trace Conditioning– the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US. – Simultaneous Conditioning– CS and US are presented at the same time. – Backward Conditioning – US is presented first and is followed by the CS. This method is particularly ineffective.

46. Classical Conditioning Higher-order conditioning Higher-order conditioning –a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) First order conditioning: is the bell + food +salivation to bell = salivation

47. Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction –the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

48. Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous recovery –the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

49. Classical Conditioning Generalization Generalization –the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

50. Classical Conditioning Discrimination Discrimination –in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

51. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy Classical conditioning applies to other organisms Showed how to study a topic scientifically

52. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy: Applications of Classical Conditioning John Watson and Baby Albert

53. Applications of Classical Conditioning John Watson and Little Albert – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI

54. Classical Conditioning Averse conditioning- conditioned to have a negative response to objects (e.g. white rat) – Used in socially constructive ways (nail biting) Taste Aversion- ingest food or drink and then become nauseous, you will probably develop an aversion to the food or drink. – Response is adaptive (helpful for survival of species) avoid dangerous foods in the future.

55. Module 27: Operant Conditioning

57. Operant Conditioning

58. Operant conditioning –a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Actions followed by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishers often decrease. Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is called operant behavior.

59. Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning –Respondent behavior (Automatic responses to stimulus) Operant conditioning –Actions associated with consequences –Operant behavior

60. Skinner’s Experiments

61. Edward Thorndike Edward Thorndike was one of the first people to research this kind of learning. Edward Thorndike’s Law of EffectEdward Thorndike’s Law of Effect –Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. –He used the term instrumental learning to describe his work. He believed the consequence was instrumental in shaping future behaviors.

62. Edward Thorndike He conducted a series of famous experiments using a cat in a puzzle box. The hungry cat was locked in a cage next to a food dish. The cat had to get out to get to the food. Thorndike found after a series of trials that the time required to get out decreased. The time decreased gradually. The cat did not suddenly realize how to get out. This finding led Thorndike to assert that the cat learned the new behavior without mental activity but rather simply connected a stimulus and a response.

63. Skinner’s Experiments B.F. Skinner Most influential and contraversial figure in modern behaviorism. His work elaborated on Edward Thorndike’s work. –Developed a Behavioral technology that revealed principles of Behavior control. –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-RS80DVvrghttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-RS80DVvrg –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhvaSEJtOV8https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhvaSEJtOV8 –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-lgMnvPDQ0https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-lgMnvPDQ0

64. Skinner’s Experiments Operant Chamber –in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Reinforcement –in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

65. Skinner’s Experiments Shaping Behavior Shaping –an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. –Successive approximations Discriminative stimulus in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

66. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.

67. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer –Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement –Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

68. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer –Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement –Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

69. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer –Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement –Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

70. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer –Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement –Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

71. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer –Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement –Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

72. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers In the Skinner Box, if we give a rat in a Skinner box food when it presses the lever, we are using positive reinforcement. However, if we terminate a loud noise or shock in response to a press of the lever, we are using negative reinforcement.

73. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Escape learning allows one to terminate an aversive stimulus; avoidance learning, on the other hand, enables one to avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether. If Quinn creates ruckus in the AP Psychology class he hates and is asked to leave, he is evidencing escape learning. An example of avoidance learning would be if Quinn cut AP Psychology class.

74. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers: Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Primary reinforcer Conditioned reinforcer –Secondary reinforcer Immediate vs delayed reinforcers

75. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Primary reinforcer –an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. –Includes things like food, water, and rest whose natural properties are reinforcing Secondary reinforcers – Are things we have learned to value such as praise or the chance to play a video game. Money is a special kind of secondary reinforcer, called a generalized reinforcer, because it can be traded for virtually anything.

76. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules One practical application of generalized reinforcers is known as a token economy. Every time we complete a desired task we are given a token. Periodically we can trade the token in for any variety of reinforcers. Used in prisons, mental institutions, and even schools.

77. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Conditioned reinforcer –a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. –Humans do respond to delayed reinforcers unlike animals. (Ex. Paycheck at the end of the week, grade at the end of the term, trophy at the end of a season.) However, immediate consequences are more allurin.g

78. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement Partial (intermittent) reinforcement Schedules –Fixed-ratio scheduleFixed-ratio schedule –Variable-ratio scheduleVariable-ratio schedule –Fixed-interval scheduleFixed-interval schedule –Variable-interval scheduleVariable-interval schedule

79. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcementContinuous reinforcement –reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Partial (intermittent) reinforcementPartial (intermittent) reinforcement –reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

80. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-ratio schedule (FR)Fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses. Variable-ratio schedule (VR)Variable-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

81. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-interval schedule (FI)Fixed-interval schedule –in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed. Variable-interval schedule (VI)Variable-interval schedule –in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

82. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules

92. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Punishment –an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows. –Positive punishment- the addition of something unpleasant –Negative punishment- removal of something pleasant

93. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Punishment –Positive punishment –Negative punishment

94. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Punishment –Positive punishment –Negative punishment

95. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Punishment –Positive punishment –Negative punishment

96. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Punishment –Positive punishment –Negative punishment

97. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Negatives of using punishment –Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten –Punishment teaches discrimination –Punishment can teach fear –Physical punishment may increase aggression

98. Skinner’s Legacy

99. Controversies surrounding Skinner’s Operant Conditioning –He repeatedly insisted that external influences (not internal thoughts and feelings) shape behavior. –He urged people to use the principles to change people’s behavior at work, home, and school. –Critics said he dehumanized people.

100. Module 28: Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning

102. Application of Operant Conditioning

103. At school In sports At home For self- improvement

104. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

121. Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning

122. Biological Constraints on Conditioning

127. Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning John Garcia –Conditioned Taste Aversion –Biologically primed associations Natural Selection and Learning –Genetic predisposition

128. Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning

132. Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Operant Conditioning Naturally adapting behaviors Instinctive drift

133. Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning

134. Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning Predictability of an event –Expectancy Stimulus associations

135. Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Operant Conditioning Latent learning –Cognitive mapCognitive map Insight Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivationExtrinsic motivation

136. Influences on Conditioning

141. Learning and Personal Control

142. Cope Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping

143. Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)Learned helplessness

144. Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)Learned helplessness

145. Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)Learned helplessness

146. Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)Learned helplessness

147. Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Internal Versus External Locus of Control External locus of control Internal locus of control

148. Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Depleting and Strengthening Self-Control Self-control

149. Module 30: Learning by Observation

151. Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

152. Observational learning –Social learning –ModelingModeling –Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

153. Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

156. Mirror neurons

157. Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain Cognitive imitation

158. Applications of Observational Learning

159. Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial versus Antisocial Effects Prosocial effects Antisocial effects

160. The End

161. Teacher Information Types of Files – This presentation has been saved as a “basic” Powerpoint file. While this file format placed a few limitations on the presentation, it insured the file would be compatible with the many versions of Powerpoint teachers use. To add functionality to the presentation, teachers may want to save the file for their specific version of Powerpoint. Animation – Once again, to insure compatibility with all versions of Powerpoint, none of the slides are animated. To increase student interest, it is suggested teachers animate the slides wherever possible. Adding slides to this presentation – Teachers are encouraged to adapt this presentation to their personal teaching style. To help keep a sense of continuity, blank slides which can be copied and pasted to a specific location in the presentation follow this “Teacher Information” section.

162. Teacher Information Unit Coding – Just as Myers’ Psychology for AP 2e is color coded to the College Board AP Psychology Course Description (Acorn Book) Units, so are these Powerpoints. The primary background color of each slide indicates the specific textbook unit. Psychology’s History and Approaches Research Methods Biological Bases of Behavior Sensation and Perception States of Consciousness Learning Cognition Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Developmental Psychology Personality Testing and Individual Differences Abnormal Psychology Treatment of Abnormal Behavior Social Psychology

163. Teacher Information Hyperlink Slides - This presentation contain two types of hyperlinks. Hyperlinks can be identified by the text being underlined and a different color (usually purple). – Unit subsections hyperlinks: Immediately after the unit title and module title slide, a page can be found listing all of the unit’s subsections. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of these hyperlinks will take the user directly to the beginning of that subsection. – Bold print term hyperlinks: Every bold print term from the unit is included in this presentation as a hyperlink. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of the hyperlinks will take the user to a slide containing the formal definition of the term. Clicking on the “arrow” in the bottom left corner of the definition slide will take the user back to the original point in the presentation. These hyperlinks were included for teachers who want students to see or copy down the exact definition as stated in the text. Most teachers prefer the definitions not be included to prevent students from only “copying down what is on the screen” and not actively listening to the presentation. For teachers who continually use the Bold Print Term Hyperlinks option, please contact the author using the email address on the next slide to learn a technique to expedite the returning to the original point in the presentation.

164. Teacher Information Continuity slides – Throughout this presentation there are slides, usually of graphics or tables, that build on one another. These are included for three purposes. By presenting information in small chunks, students will find it easier to process and remember the concepts. By continually changing slides, students will stay interested in the presentation. To facilitate class discussion and critical thinking. Students should be encouraged to think about “what might come next” in the series of slides. Please feel free to contact me at kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us with any questions, concerns, suggestions, etc. regarding these presentations.kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us Kent Korek Germantown High School Germantown, WI 53022 262-253-3400 kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us

165. Division title (red print) subdivision title ( blue print) xxx –xxx

166. Division title (red print in text) subdivision title ( blue print in text) Use this slide to add a table, chart, clip art, picture, diagram, or video clip. Delete this box when finished

167. Definition Slide = add definition here

168. Definition Slides

169. Learning = the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

170. Habituation = an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

171. Associative Learning = learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

172. Stimulus = any event or situation that evokes a response.

173. Cognitive Learning = the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

174. Classical Conditioning = a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

175. Behaviorism = the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

176. Neutral Stimulus = in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

177. Unconditioned Response (UR) = in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

178. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response (UR).

179. Conditioned Response (CR) = in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

180. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

181. Acquisition = in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

182. Higher-Order Conditioning = a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

183. Extinction = the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

184. Spontaneous Recovery = the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

185. Generalization = the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

186. Discrimination = in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

187. Operant Conditioning = a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

188. Law of Effect = Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

189. Operant Chamber = in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

190. Reinforcement = in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

191. Shaping = an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

192. Discriminative Stimulus = in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

193. Positive Reinforcement = increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

194. Negative Reinforcement = increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.

195. Primary Reinforcer = an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

196. Conditioned Reinforcer = a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

197. Reinforcement Schedule = a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

198. Continuous Reinforcement = reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

199. Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement = reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

200. Fixed-Ratio Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses.

201. Variable-Ratio Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

202. Fixed-Interval Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed.

203. Variable-Interval Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

204. Punishment = an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

205. Biofeedback = a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

206. Respondent Behavior = behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

207. Operant Behavior = behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

208. Cognitive Map = a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

209. Latent Learning = learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

210. Insight = a sudden realization problem’s solution.

211. Intrinsic Motivation = a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

212. Extrinsic Motivation = a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

213. Coping = alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

214. Problem-Focused Coping = attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

215. Emotion-Focused Coping = attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

216. Learned Helplessness = the helplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

217. External Locus of Control = the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

218. Internal Locus of Control = the perception that you control your own fate.

219. Self-Control = the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long- term rewards.

220. Observational Learning = learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

221. Modeling = the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

222. Mirror Neurons = frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

223. Prosocial Behavior = positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.