1. Do people try less hard when working in groups? If so, why do they do so? Ringleman Effect --- (e.g., with rope pulling task) The average performance (input) of individuals decreases as group size increases Why? a)Less effort b) Coordination issues Social Loafing

2. Ringelmann Findings IndividualsIndividual Efforts (Sum) Group Effort Group/Indiv idual Ratio 1-7764480.63 8-14516432.84 15-21533.7435.4.82 22-28575.5471.2.82 15-281109.2858.9.78

3. Subject 1Subject 2SumDyad Performance 60.0114.0174.0180.0 85.279.2164.4120.0 97.278.0175.2174.0 72.081.6153.6156.0 84.078.0162.0132.0 54.072.0126.0140.4 78.088.8168.8144.0 78.0102.0180.0152.4 78.086.4164.0122.4 72.069.6141.6110.4 Ringelmann Findings (cont.)

4. Yelling (& clapping) studies by Latane, Williams, & Harkins Alone In actual groups In pseudo-groups Less individual effort when in groups, even in “groups” when no one was present (but people thought they were)

5. 10 8 6 4 2 Sound pressure per person 1 2 6 Group size Reduced effort (Social loafing) Coordination loss Potential productivity Pseudo-groups Actual groups

6. Why less effort (loafing)? Expectation that others are trying (or will try) less hard (equity) Optimizing goal setting, rather than maximizing Less social pressure on each individual group member Less contingency between individual inputs and outputs (individuals in groups cannot be identified; anonymous)

7. Social Pressure

10. 30 27 24 21 18 15 Performance Alone Group 16.5 24.5 United StatesIsraelChina 23.3 20.8 23.8 18.5 Country Social Loafing Across Cultures

11. Isolated, cohesive, homogeneous decision-making group Lack of impartial leadership High stress Closed-mindedness Rationalization Squelching dissent “Mindguards” Feelings of righteousness and invulnerability Self-censorship Incomplete examination of alternatives Failure to examine risks and consequences Incomplete search for information The Stages of Groupthink What are the causes and consequences of groupthink? Poor decisions Consequences Systems of GroupthinkAntecedentConditions

13. Other Group Decision-Making Phenomena Collective Entrapment --- The more effort used to make a decision, the greater likelihood of sticking to that decision (even if it’s been shown to be incorrect) Information Sampling --- Information that is shared by most members is most likely to be mentioned (discussed); information held by one (or a few) members not likely to be presented Common Knowledge Effect --- Information held by most group members exerts a stronger impact on final decisions

14. Leadership style (impartial, use of outside input) Brainstorming? Nominal Group Technique Define the problem Individuals anonymously generate solutions Solutions presented to the group (no evaluation allowed) Group rates solutions Best solution is chosen (vote, consensus) Ways to Improve Group Decision-Making