1. Class 21: Modern Theodicy Dr. Ann T. Orlando 18 March 2016

2. Introduction Thomas Hobbes Pierre Bayle Gottfried Leibnitz Voltaire Twentieth Century successors

3. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Born in England, connected to Royalist opposition to Cromwell  Spent time in exile in Paris A nominalist, empiricist, and materialist, ultimately becoming a skeptic  Believed that all was material  Mind as only computing matter (opposed to Descartes)  Language is merely signification for the purposes of communication, not linked to actual truth of things Political philosophy of defense and survival: Human life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”

4. Early Modern Wrestling with Evil: Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) Pierre Bayle wrote one of the first modern Dictionaries His Dictionary was the most widely read book in the 18 th C; having enormous influence on philosophes.  Voltaire’s Dictionary  Diderot’s Encyclopedia Bayle was pessimistic about a solution to the theodicy problem  Raised objection to all solutions, including Manichees (2 gods), Plotinus (evil does not exist) and Epicurean (God does not exist) Like Hobbes, pessimistic about human nature; more evil than good in the world Usually considered one of the first early modern skeptics

5. Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) Born into a prominent Lutheran family Studied Church Fathers, ancient history and scholastic theology Desperately wanted to reconcile Lutheran and Catholic theologies through philosophy Made original and brilliant contributions to  Mathematics (calculus)  Physics  Logic  German jurisprudence  Philosophy  Metaphysics

6. Some Principles of Leibniz’s Philosophy Opposed to materialism and atheism (Epicureanism of Hobbes) God always acts for the best  Thus we must live in the best world Nothing happens without a reason or cause  Although we may not know the reason, and see only the effect All substances are interconnected, even if we cannot know those connections  These connections, past present and future, are contained within each substance  Each substance thus is a ‘mirror’ of the entire universe The universe was created in and remains in harmony Body and mind each follows their own laws, but are synchronized through universal harmony  Body subject to efficient causes  Mind to final causes Mind (soul) has innate ideas based on universal harmony Note, only about half of Leibniz’s works have been published; the only book he published during his lifetime was Theodicy

7. Leibniz and Theodicy Written as a reply to Bayle in 1710  How can this be the best world when there is evil, when people are unhappy Leibniz answer: earthly happiness of every individual may not be the right way to judge ‘best’ God creates limited things which taken in aggregate reflect God’s perfection.  But this implies that individual things may suffer some evil or suffering due to their limitations  Limitations as a type of privation In other words, Leibniz brings Augustine into the 17 th C

8. Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and Optimism Cease then, nor order imperfection name: Our proper bliss depends on what we blame. Know thy own point: this kind, this due degree Of blindness, weakness, Heav'n bestows on thee. Submit. In this, or any other sphere, Secure to be as blest as thou canst bear: Safe in the hand of one disposing pow'r, Or in the natal, or the mortal hour. All nature is but art, unknown to thee; All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; All discord, harmony not understood; All partial evil, universal good. And, spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, One truth is clear, 'Whatever is, is right.'

9. Lisbon Earthquake and Voltaire Crushing earthquake on All Saints Day, 1755  Resulting fires and tsunami destroy most of Lisbon Profoundly raises the question of natural evil and human suffering Voltaire writes his poem to refute Leibniz and Pope, using the Lisbon earthquake suffering as his primary example See Rousseau reply to Voltaire, http://geophysics.tau.ac.il/personal/shmulik/LisbonEq- letters.htm

10. The Shoah Human moral evil on an unprecedented scale An event in human history that has been documented and reported in detail How could this happen in the most ‘enlightened’ and scientific country in Europe? Either ‘proof’ that God does not exist, or that the Enlightenment is a false philosophy, or both

11. Albert Camus (1913-1960) Born in North Africa Wrote doctoral thesis on Augustine and Neoplatonism Fought in French resistance against Nazis Evil exists, but God does not

12. The Plague Evil is real, God is not Main character, a doctor (atheist), narrates the story as an objective observer On of key figures is a priest, Augustinian scholar Pivotal moment: death of a child  Neither religion nor science can relieve pain Near end, doctor and mother stare out the window and see…nothing Hero of story continually asks, without answer from doctor, ‘how can I be a saint without God?’

13. John Hick (1922 - 2012) Conscientious objector during WWII in Britain Studies philosophy after the War, especially Kant Concerned with real as opposed to counterfeit religious experiences (Faith and Knowledge)  Ultimate Divine cannot be known in the world  Valid religious experience is determined by long-term effect on believer Both God and evil exist

14. Evil and the God of Love Detailed examination of Augustine on evil and the impact of Augustine’s thought  Aquinas  Calvin  Leibniz Given the reality of evil, a questioning of the privation model Hick Suggests an ‘Irenaean” approach  Man always learning and moving forward Read his criticism of Augustine (and Leibniz), Chapter VIII

15. Assignments 1. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Chapters XIII, XIV, available at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/hobbes-lev13.html http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/hobbes-lev13.html 2. Leibniz, Summary of the Controversy Reduced to Formal Argument, in Theodicy, trans. E.M. Huggard, La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, 1985, pp 377-388. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=VUMgHq9lE2UC&pg=PA5&lpg= PA5&dq=.+Leibniz,+Summary+of+the+Controversy+Reduced+to+F ormal+Argument,+in+Theodicy&source=bl&ots=mJrFaz25Hc&sig=O KhA0mqkyT2r9D5cD8JV2EXOhzo&hl=en&ei=R6NmTdKuKsL78Ab JwKT4Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBM Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false (First Appendix) 3. Voltaire Lisbon Earthquake in The Portable Voltaire. In Paul Hyland. The Enlightenment, A Sourcebook and Reader. London: Routledge, 2003. p 77-82.