2. By: Ms. Susan M. Pojer Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua, NY The Age of Reason & Enlightenment

3. 18 c Politics ► – Constitutional Monarchy ► BRITAIN  – Constitutional Monarchy ► Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity) ► FRANCE  Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity) ► “Enlightened Despotism” ► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE,RUSSIA  “Enlightened Despotism” ► – traditional empire ► OTTOMAN EMPIRE –  traditional empire

4. The Origins of Enlightenment? ► SCIENTIFIC:  Newton’s system was synonymous with the empirical and the practical.  Scientific laws could be expressed as universal mathematical formulas.  Science allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from politics to religion.

5. William Blake’s Newton, 1795

6. The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

7. Zoology & Biology A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.

8. Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

9. Private Collections The Origins of Modern Museums.

10. Centers of the Enlightenment

11. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment 1. Rationalism  reason is the arbiter of all things. 2. Cosmology  a new concept of man, his existence on earth, & the place of the earth in the universe. 3. Secularism  application of the methods of science to religion & philosophy.

12. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment 4. Scientific Method  Mathematical analysis  Experimentation  Inductive reasoning.  Utilitarianism  the greatest good for the greatest number.  Tolerance  No opinion is worth burning your neighbor for.

13. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment 7. Optimism & Self-Confiden ce  The belief that man is intrinsically good.  The belief in social progress.  Freedom  Of thought and expression.  Bring liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism).  Education of the Masses

14. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment 10. Legal Reforms  Justice, kindness, and charity  no torture or indiscriminant incarceration.  Due process of law.  Constitutionalism  Written constitutions  listing citizens rights.  Cosmopolitanism.

15. The “Enlightened” Individual  The Philosophe ► Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking  CHANGE & PROGRESS! ► They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.

16. The “Great Debate” Reason & Logic Traditions and Superstitions  rationalism  empiricism  tolerance  skepticism  Deism  nostalgia for the past  organized religions  irrationalism  emotionalism

17. Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) ► Progress of the Human Mind, 1794  An expectation of universal happiness.  Every individual guided by reason could enjoy true independence.  He advocated a free and equal education, constitutionalism, and equal rights for women.

18. John Locke (1632-1704) ► Letter on Toleration, 1689 ► Two Treatises of Government, 1690 ► Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 1693 ► The Reasonableness of Christianity, 1695

19. John Locke’s Philosophy (I) ► The individual must become a “rational creature.” ► Virtue can be learned and practiced. ► Human beings possess free will.  they should be prepared for freedom.  obedience should be out of conviction, not out of fear. ► Legislators owe their power to a contract with the people. ► Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.

20. John Locke’s Philosophy (II) ► There are certain natural rights that are endowed by God to all human beings.  life, liberty, property! ► The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was nonsense. ► He favored a republic as the best form of government.

21. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) ► Critique of Pure Reason, 1781 ► “What is Enlightenment?”, 1784 ► Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, 1786

22. Kant’s Philosophy ► Dare to Know! ► He introduced the concept of transcendentalism  some things are known by methods other than empirically.  The belief in the existence of a non- rational way to understand things.  The existence of neither time nor space is determined by empirical understanding.  These type of things are a priori.  They transcend sensory experience.  They are pure, not empirical [ [concepts like faith, pre-existence, life after death ].

23. Thomas Paine (1737-1809) ► Common Sense, 1776 ► The Rights of Man, 1791

24. The American “Philosophes” John Adams (1745-1826) Ben Franklin (1706-1790) Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) …...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...

25. Voltaire (1712-1778) ► AKA  Francois Marie Arouet. ► Essay on the Customs and Spirit of Nations, 1756 ► Candide, 1759 ► Philosophical Dictionary, 1764

26. Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I) ► E► E► E► Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’t do. ► G► G► G► God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. ► I► I► I► If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him. ► I► I► I► It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. ► L► L► L► Love truth and pardon error.

27. Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II) ► J► J► J► Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers. ► M► M► M► Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtue that makes the difference. ► P► P► P► Prejudice is opinion without judgment. ► T► T► T► The way to become boring is to say everything. ► I► I► I► I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.

28. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)  He pointed out problems with contemporary England and tried to urge reform. ► The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (6 volumes), 1787.

29. The Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) ► Persian Letters, 1721 ► On the Spirit of Laws, 1758

30. Montesquieu’s Philosophy ► Three types of government:  Monarchy.  Republic.  Despotism.  A separation of political powers ensured freedom and liberty.

31. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) ► A Discourse on the Sciences and Arts, 1750 ► Emile, 1762. ► The Social Contract, 1762.

32. Rousseau’s Philosophy (I) ► Question  Does progress in the arts and sciences correspond with progress in morality?  As civilizations progress, they move away from morality.  Science & art raised artificial barriers between people and their natural state.  Therefore, the revival of science and the arts had corrupted social morals, not improved them! NO!

33. Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)  Virtue exists in the ”state of nature,” but lost in “society.”  Government must preserve “virtue” and ”liberty.”  Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.  The concept of the ”Noble Savage.”  Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.  Civil liberty  invest ALL rights and liberties into a society.

34. Rousseau’s Philosophy (III) ► In The Social Contract:  The right kind of political order could make people truly moral and free.  Individual moral freedom could be achieved only by learning to subject one’s individual interests to the “General Will.”  Individuals did this by entering into a social contract not with their rulers, but with each other.  This social contract was derived from human nature, not from history, tradition, or the Bible.

35. Rousseau’s Philosophy (IV) ► People would be most free and moral under a republican form of government with direct democracy. ► However, the individual could be “forced to be free” by the terms of the social contract.  He provided no legal protections for individual rights. ► Rousseau’s thinking:  Had a great influence on the French revolutionaries of 1789.  His attacks on private property inspired the communists of the 19 c such as Karl Marx.

36. Popularizing the Enlightenment

37. A Parisian Salon

38. Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

39. The Salonnieres Madame Geoffrin (1699-1777) Mademoiselle Julie de Lespinasse (1732-1776) Madame Suzanne Necker (1739-1794)

40. Other Female Salons ► Wealthy Jewish women created nine of the fourteen salons in Berlin. ► In Warsaw, Princess Zofia Czartoryska gathered around her the reform leaders of Poland-Lithuania. ► Middle-class women in London used their salons to raise money to publish women’s writings.

41. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) ► All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and without regard for anyone’s feelings. ► We will speak against senseless laws until they are reformed; and, while we wait, we will abide by them.

42. Diderot’s Encyclopédie

43. The Encyclopédie ► Complete cycle of knowledge…………...… change the general way of thinking. ► 28 volumes. ► Alphabetical, cross-referenced, illustrated. ► First published in 1751.

44. Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

46. Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

47. Reading During the Enlightenment ► Literacy:  80% for men; 60% women. ► Books were expensive (one day’s wages). ► Many readers for each book (20 : 1)  novels, plays & other literature.  journals, memoirs, “private lives.”  philosophy, history, theology.  newspapers, political pamphlets.

48. An Increase in Reading

49. “Must Read” Books of the Time

50. The Legacy of the Enlightenment? 1. The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on the defensive. 2. Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.

51. The Legacy of the Enlightenment? 3. New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and professional/scientific organizations. 4. 19 c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!)

52. The Legacy of the Enlightenment? 5. It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the human condition (the “Religion of Nature”). 6. Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the individual had come into existence as a political and social force to be reckoned with.