1. History 171D The United States and the World Since 1945

2. Eisenhower and the Cold War

3. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953-1961

4. With Vice President Richard M. Nixon As president, Eisenhower was often dismissed as detached and out of touch

5. With Vice President Richard M. Nixon... but was later shown to have been more on top of events than assumed at the time

8. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles

9. Eisenhower and Dulles were highly critical of Truman’s policy of conventional containment

10. They instead called for “roll-back”

11. ... and posture of “massive retaliation” ’

12. Eisenhower and Dulles also favored covert action as way of fighting communism without resorting to open warfare; Allen Dulles (Foster’s brother) was named director of CIA Allen Dulles

13. Nuclear War Conventional War Covert Action

14. 1953—Stalin died and was (briefly) succeeded by Georgi Malenkov, who called for peace talks with West

15. Talks failed to occur when Soviets couldn’t meet Eisenhower’s conditions

16. 1954—Malenkov was replaced by Nikita Khrushchev

17. Threat of “massive retaliation” in action North Korean and Chinese POWs 1953—ongoing Korean War

18. Threat of “massive retaliation” in action North Korean and Chinese POWs 1953—Eisenhower and Dulles threatened to use nuclear weapons against China, which shortly thereafter accepted US terms for reaching truce in Korean War; but unclear if threat was decisive

19. 1954-1955—Offshore islands crisis Chiang Kai-shek Threat of “massive retaliation” in action

20. 1955—Eisenhower and Dulles again threatened China with nukes, to prevent it from attacking offshore islands of Quemoy and Matsu; also got Congress to pass Formosa Strait Resolution Threat of “massive retaliation” in action Chiang Kai-shek

21. 1955—Eisenhower and Dulles again threatened China with nukes, to prevent it from attacking offshore islands of Quemoy and Matsu; also got Congress to pass Formosa Strait Resolution Threat of “massive retaliation” in action

22. Examples of covert action: Iran Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) facilities

23. Examples of covert action: Iran Shah Reza Mohammed Pahlavi

24. Mohammed Mossadeq 1951—Iranian parliament nationalized facilities of AIOC and elected Mohammed Mossadeq prime minister Examples of covert action: Iran

25. 1951-1952—British boycotted Iranian oil; Mossadeq refused to rescind nationalization and started challenging Shah

26. From a secret CIA history, 1954 “Operation Ajax”

27. 1953—Eisenhower administration moved against Mossadeq; enlisted Kermit Roosevelt of CIA

28. 1953—Roosevelt fomented coup within Iranian army, ousting Mossadeq and restoring Shah’s authority

31. Shah became close ally of US

32. Examples of covert action: Guatemala

33. 1951—Jacobo Arbenz was elected president of Guatemala, launched economic reforms that angered United Fruit Company Examples of covert action: Guatemala

34. 1954—Eisenhower administration, seeing Arbenz as pro- communist, launched PBSUCCESS, CIA operation to overthrow Guatemalan government CIA-supported army

35. 1954—Eisenhower administration, seeing Arbenz as pro- communist, launched PBSUCCESS, CIA operation to overthrow Guatemalan government Gasoline refinery bombed by CIA planes

36. 1954—Arbenz was replaced by Castillo Armas

37. Eisenhower and Dulles saw their actions re Korea, Formosa, Iran, and Guatemala as major victories, but in one country they were less successful:

38. Since 1946 Vietminh, under Ho Chi Minh, had challenged French rule in Vietnam; US had grown increasingly supportive of France, especially after outbreak of Korean War in 1950 Vietnam

39. 1954—Vietminh trapped French forces at Dien Bien Phu Vietnam

40. 1954—Vietminh trapped French forces at Dien Bien Phu Vietnam

41. Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap Vietnam

42. 1954—Vietminh trapped French forces at Dien Bien Phu Vietnam

43. Eisenhower administration considered intervening on France’s behalf but decided against it Vietnam J. F. Dulles

44. 1954—Major powers met at Geneva and agreed to temporary division of Vietnam at 17th parallel

45. Nationwide elections were to take place in 1956

46. After Geneva, French pulled out of Vietnam

47. US assumed responsibility in south

48. US set up Ngo Dinh Diem as leader of “South Vietnam” Eisenhower, Dulles, and Diem

49. US set up Ngo Dinh Diem as leader of “South Vietnam”; Diem refused to hold elections in 1956 Eisenhower, Dulles, and Diem

50. By mid-1950s Cold War rivalry was becoming more complex, for three reasons: Eisenhower and Khrushchev

51. By mid-1950s Cold War rivalry was becoming more complex, for three reasons: Eisenhower and Khrushchev 1) East-West tension was diminishing

52. By mid-1950s Cold War rivalry was becoming more complex, for three reasons: Eisenhower and Khrushchev 1) East-West tension was diminishing 2) Cold War blocs were becoming less uniform

53. By mid-1950s Cold War rivalry was becoming more complex, for three reasons: Eisenhower and Khrushchev 1) East-West tension was diminishing 2) Cold War blocs were becoming less uniform 3) Independent actors were emerging on world stage

54. 1) Easing of East-West tensions

55. 1955—US, Britain, France, and Soviet Union agreed to withdraw troops from Austria, which became neutral in Cold War

56. 1) Easing of East-West tensions 1955—Eisenhower and Khrushchev met in Geneva

57. Khrushchev rejected Eisenhower’s “Open Skies” proposal, but US-Soviet atmosphere improved 1) Easing of East-West tensions

58. 2) Relaxation of authority within each Cold War camp

59. In US: Civil Rights struggle, rock & roll, antinuclear movement, “beatnik” rebellion 2) Relaxation of authority within each Cold War camp

60. In US: Civil Rights struggle, rock & roll, antinuclear movement, “beatnik” rebellion 2) Relaxation of authority within each Cold War camp Allen Ginsberg, Jack Keroac, and Gregory Corso NYC rally, 1959

61. In Soviet Union: de-Stalinization campaign Khrushchev’s “secret speech,” 1956 2) Relaxation of authority within each Cold War camp

62. “Non-aligned” nations Jawaharlal Nehru of India Sukarno of Indonesia Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt 3) Emergence of independent actors

63. New international system exemplified by two simultaneous crises in 1956, in Egypt and Hungary

64. Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt wanted to build Aswan Dam to increase agricultural yield and produce hydroelectric power

65. Egypt July 1956—Dulles withdrew funding offer for Aswan Dam

66. Egypt July 1956—Nasser nationalized Suez Canal Company to collect toll revenues Nasser announcing nationalization decision in Alexandria, July 1956

67. Egypt July 1956—Nasser nationalized Suez Canal Company to collect toll revenues Nasser announcing nationalization decision in Alexandria, July 1956 Britain, France, and Israel started plotting attack against Nasser

68. Hungary Meanwhile, Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalin emboldened Hungarian reformers led by Imre Nagy to challenge Soviet authority Imre Nagy

69. Egypt Late October 1956— Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt

70. Egypt US and Soviet Union both condemned attack; Eisenhower used economic pressure to force end to attack

71. Hungary Early November 1956—Against backdrop of Egyptian crisis, Khrushchev crushed Hungarian revolution, had Nagy arrested and executed Imre Nagy

72. Legacies of Suez and Hungary crises: Suez demonstrated that Britain was no longer primary Western power in Middle East; from now US would play that role

73. Legacies of Suez and Hungary crises: Suez demonstrated that Britain was no longer primary Western power in Middle East; from now US would play that role Hungary showed hollowness of “rollback” rhetoric and solidified Soviet control over Eastern Europe (at least in the short and medium term)