1. Monomers, polymers, and macromolecules(Biomolecules)
There are 4 categories of macromolecules:
Carbohydrates
Proteins,
Lipids,
and Nucleic Acids

2. Carbon is the central element
All biomolecules contain a Carbon chain or ring
Carbon has 4 outer shell electrons (valence = 4)
Therefore it’s bonding capacity is great
It forms covalent bonds –hence, has strong bonds
Once bound to other elements (or to other Carbons), it is very stable

3. Carbon linkages Single chains Rings CH4 = = C3H8
Propane
Single chains
Rings
= C3H8
The 4 types of biomolecules often consist of large carbon chains

4. Carbon bonds with more than just hydrogen!!
To OH groups in sugars(Carbs and Lipids)
To NH2 groups in amino acids (Proteins)
To H2PO4 groups of nucleotides of DNA, RNA, and ATP(Nucleic Acids)
Amino acid

5. Monomers and polymers
All Macromolecules are broken down to Monomers to be absorbed and used by the bod.
Monomers are made into polymers via dehydration reactions
Polymers are broken down into monomers via hydrolysis reactions

6. Fig. 3.3

7. Carbohydrates (or sugars)
Carbohydrates - Simple sugars (monosaccharides –Monomer for Carbs)
Only one 3-C, 5-C, 6-C chain or ring involved Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen - CHO
Glucose (Plants), Galactose(broken down in liver to glucose comes from Dairy products) and Fructose(Fruit) combine to form Di-Saccharides

8. Examples of sugar monomers*
Fig. 3.5
Examples of sugar monomers*
*Carbons C - are counted within the ring structures (starting from the right side and counting clockwise)

9. Carbohydrates (sugars)
Double sugars (disaccharides)
Two 6-C chains or rings bonded together (5 Chain carbons are bonded to form RNA and DNA)
Glucose bonded to Glucose yields Maltose(Malt sugar)
Glucose bonded to Fructose yields Sucrose(Table Sugar)
Glucose bonded to Galactose yields Lactose(Milk Sugar)
All Disaccharides must be broken down to simple sugars to be used.

10. Carbohydrates (sugars)
Complex carbohydrates - (Polysaccharides Chains of Sugars)
Starch
Cellulose
Glycogen
Chitin

11. Starch structure vs Glycogen structure
Fig. 3.9
Polysaccharides
Starch structure vs Glycogen structure

12. Polysaccharides: Cellulose structure
Fig. 3.10
Polysaccharides: Cellulose structure

13. Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen - CHO
Central core of glycerol
Can be bound to as many as 3 fatty acid chains
They exhibit a high number of C-H bonds – therefore much energy and non-polar
When placed in water, lipids spontaneously cluster together
They help organize the interior content of cells  “phospholipids”

14. Glycerol and Fatty Acid chains
Lipid is the collective name for fats, oils, waxes and fat-like molecules (such as steroids) found in the body.
Their roles include: components of cell membranes (phospholipids and cholesterol), energy stores, chemical messengers (steroid 'hormones'), protection, waterproofing, insulation and buoyancy agents.
The basic unit of lipids is a triglyceride, synthesised from glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol) and fatty acids.
Glycerol is a type of alcohol, Alcohols are organic compounds.
Triglycerides are formed by condensation reactions between glycerol and three fatty

15. Saturated and unsaturated fats
The difference resides in the number of H’s attached to C’s in the fatty acid chains; the amount of “saturation” on the C’s. Depends on how many H bond to the C.

16. Saturated vs unsaturated fats and diet
Saturated fats raise LDL-cholesterol levels in the blood (animal fats, dairy, coconut oil, cocoa butter)
Polyunsaturated fats leave LDL-cholesterol unchanged; but lower HDL-cholesterol (safflower and corn oil)
Monounsaturated fats leave LDL and HDL levels unchanged (olive oil, canola, peanut oil, avocados)
One variety of polyunsaturated fat (Omega-3 fatty acids) guards against blood clot formation and reduce fat levels in the blood (certain fish, walnuts, almonds, and tofu)

17. Phospholipids and cell membranes
Phosopholipids make up the majority of cell membranes
Including:
The plasma membrane
Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Golgi apparatus
Membrane-bound vesicles
The 3 C’s of glycerol are bound to 2 fatty acid chains and phosphate

18. Cell environment organizes P-lipid bilayer to proper orientation
Hydrophilic (polar) like water - “heads” of P-lipid oriented to the exterior
Hydrophobic (non-polar) don’t like water “tails” oriented to the interior

19. Proteins Composed of chains of amino acids CHON + R group
20 amino acids exist
Amino acids contain
Central Carbon
Amine group
Carboxyl group
R group

20. All differ with respect to their R group
Fig. 3.20
The 20 Amino Acids
All differ with respect to their R group

21. Peptide bonds occur between amino acids
The COOH group of 1 amino acid binds to the NH2 group of another amino acid
Forms a peptide bond!

22. Fig. 3.21
The chain (polymer) of amino acids forms a variety of loops, coils, and folded sheets from an assortment of bonds and attractions between amino acids within the chain(s)

23. There are at least 7 functions of proteins
Enzyme catalysts – specific for 1 reaction
Defense – antibody proteins, other proteins
Transport- Hemoglobin and transferrins that are plasma protiens to transport Fe.
Support – keratin, fibrin, collagen
Motion – actin/myosin, cytoskeletal fibers
Regulation- some hormones, regulatory proteins on DNA, cell receptors
Storage – Ca and Fe attached to storage proteins

24. Fig. 3.18

25. Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA is a double polymer (chain)
Each chain is made of nucleotides
The 2 chains bond together to form a helix
Our gentetic code

26. DNA nucleotides Each nucleotide in DNA contains: 5-C sugar
(deoxyribose)
Phosphate
Nitrogen base
-adenine (A)
-guanine (G)
-cytosine (C)
-thymine (T)
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphate - CHONP

27. Fig. 3.15
The DNA “double helix”